10. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Transcription

1 10. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms on which the present investigations have been carried out, represent some of the well known wild edible mushrooms which have been investigated taxonomically in Europe, Africa, Asia and North America and other parts of World by number of investigators including Berkeley (1839, 1856, 1867), Montagne (1842, 1846), Henning s ( ), Morgan (1907), Kauffmann (1924), Dennis (1952), Beeli (1936), Heim (1941, 1942 a, b, c, 1951, 1952, 1958, 1977), Smith (1966), Heinemann (1975, 1989), Morris (1986), Otieno (1964, 1969), Sands (1970), Pegler (1972, 1977, 1983, 1986), Sundberg (1971 a, b, 1976, 1979), Sathe and Rahalkar (1975, 1976), Sathe and Sasangan (1977), Westhuizen and Eicker (1990), Reid (1990), Pegler and Vanhaecke (1994), Zheng (1985), Natarajan (1995), Purkayastha and Chandra (1974, 1975, 1976, 1985), Sieger (2003) and Wei et al., (2004). Tang et al., (2005), Vrinda et al., (1999, 2003), Atri et al., (2005 b), Kour et al., (2010), Kumar and Manimohan (2009 a, b, c), Vellinga, (2000, 2004, 2007, 2010), etc. Besides taxonomy there are some passing references about their edibility and sociobiological aspects as well. From Indian context not much work is available on these mushrooms. Most of the reports are sketchy and lie scattered. In view of this it was planned to investigate taxonomic, nutritional, nutraceutical and sociobiological aspects of these mushrooms with the sole purpose to realize their nutritional and nutraceutical potential and to conserve the interesting ones for subsequent use in human welfare. 294

2 10.1 Seasonal availability, Association and Taxonomy For the collection of the samples, 5 field collection trips were undertaken to different localities of North West India during the months of June - October from Majority of the mushrooms were available from June to September which coincides with the monsoon period in the region. Macroscopic and microscopic details of the collected taxa were worked out and identification was done by consulting relevant literature and making comparisons. Vast majority of them are terrestrial, some are lignicolous, foliicolous or on living or on dead grass twigs, termitaria or on humicolous soil. Few of the taxa collected presently were found growing in close association with a specific tree species for example Lepiota castaneidisca, L. plumbicolor, Leucocoprinus birnbaumii and L. cepaestipes were found growing in close association with Grevillea robusta, Diospyros cordifolia, Pinus roxburghii and Dalbergia sissoo, respectively. Anatomical details of the worked out roots of Grevillea robusta shows formation of hartig net with the fragments of mycelium of Lepiota castaneidisca in the intercellular region of the host, thus forming putative mycorrhiza and establishing the intimacy of fungus with the host. In addition to this, Leucocoprinus cepaestipes and L. squamulosus were also found growing gregariously around the stump of Dalbergia sissoo and Bamboo tree. All Termitomyces species investigated presently were found growing in intimate association with termites and were connected to combs in the termite nests. A total of 55 species belonging to 9 genera were recorded during the present study. Of these 17 species are new records for India, 3 are new varieties and 5 are new species proposed. The new taxa proposed and new records for India includes Leucoagaricus albidus sp. nov., Cystolepiota indica sp. nov., Chlorolepiota brunneotincta sp. nov., Chlorolepiota indica sp. nov., Lepiota attenuispora sp. nov., 295

3 Chlorophyllum sphaerosporum var. macrospora var. nov., Leucoagaricus tener var. brevispora var. nov., L. barsii var. bulbobasilarus var. nov., L. melanotrichus var. melanotrichus, L. crystallifer, L. sublittoralis, Leucoagaricus rhodocephalus, Cystolepiota icterina, Macrolepiota fuliginosa, M. heimii, M. excoriata, Termitomyces reticulatus, Lepiota castaneidisca, L. boudieri, L. atrodisca, L. floralis, L. roseifolia, L. truncatispora, L. humei and L. plumbicolor Molecular Taxonomy Fungal identification becomes more reliable when classical and molecular approaches are combined (Hyde and Soytong, 2007; Than et al., 2008). Molecular taxonomy was attempted in five species, namely Cholorolepiota brunneotincta sp. nov., Macrolepiota dolichaula, Lepiota humei, Termitomyces heimii and T. mammiformis after isolating DNA for each. ITS sequencing was done using universal ITS primers (ITS-1 and ITS-4). All bands formed were of band length from bp. Search for sequence identity in the GenBank DNA database using BlastN (NCBI) (Altschul et al., 1997) was done, which revealed that ITS region of Termitomyces mammiformis had 99% similarity for 98% coverage, T. heimii with 97% similarity for 98 % coverage, Lepiota humei with 99 % similarity for 100% coverage and Macrolepiota dolichaula with 99% similarity for 100 % coverage with the sequences of the corresponding NCBI database. Conclusions arrived at regarding the identity of Termitomyces mammiformis, T. heimii, Lepiota humei and Macrolepiota dolichaula through classical taxonomic techniques were retified through molecular sequencing of ITS region of their genomic DNA. The closest ITS sequence to Chlorolepiota brunneotincta sp. nov. found in the GenBank was that of Chlorophyllum molybdites (AY ) with 84% similarity for 72% coverage followed by Lepiotaceae Br 045 (E ) with 84% similarity for 296

4 71% coverage. Morphologically this collection was compared with Chlorophyllum molybdites and Chlorolepiota mahabaleshwarensis and based upon the conclusions drawn on the basis of classical and molecular studies a new species C. brunneotincta has been named to accommodate this collection Nutritional and Sociobiological aspects During the present investigations several wild edible species have been collected and identified. These are Termitomyces microcarpus, T. badius, T. medius, T. clypeatus, T. radicatus, T. schimperi, T. mammiformis forma albus, T. heimii, T. sagittiformis, T. reticulatus, T. striatus, T. umkowaani, T. eurhizus, T. robustus, Macrolpepiota rhacodes, M. procera, M. dolichaula, Lepiota cristata, L. clypeolaria, Leucoagaricus albidus sp. nov. and Clarkienda trachodes. Of these, all the Termitomyces are mostly common in the study area. So as to conserve some of these, pure-cultures of Macrolepiota dolichaula, M. rhacodes, Termitomyces radicatus, T. mammiformis, T. heimii, Leucocoprinus cepaestipes and Lepiota humei have been raised on Potato Dextrose Agar medium and Malt extract medium through tissue culture method. Some inedible species documented in the present study area includes Chlorophyllum molybdites, Leucocoprinus cepaestipes, L. birnbaumii and L. fragilissimus. Mushrooms are a good source of proteins, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, amino acids and minerals (Jiskani, 2001). Collection and consumption of wild edible mushrooms is an important source of healthy nutrition for the rural communities during the rainy season in several parts of Africa, Asia, Europe and South America (Nakalembe et al., 2009). The knowhow about their utility is passed on from one generation to other generation by the elders of the respective area engaged in mushrooms collection and their consumption. There are number of reports of 297

5 nutritional evaluation of mushrooms including termitophilous fungi from Africa, Asia including India (Bano et al., 1964; Purkayastha and Chandra, 1976; Mukiibi, 1973; Parent and Theon, 1978; Botha and Eicker, 1992; Adejumo and Awosanya, 2005; Barros et al., 2008; Pushpa and Purushothama, 2010; Manjunathan and Kaviyarasan, 2011; Mhd Omar et al., 2011; Gulati et al., 2011; Atri et al., 2012). From edibility and nutrition point of view Termitomyces species in general are highly ranked mushrooms followed by Pleurotus species and Polyporus tenuiculus (Nakalembe et al., 2009). Among the Termitomyces species most favoured species are T. microcarpus, T. tyleranus, T. aurantiacus, T. eurhizus and T. clypeatus (Nakalembe et al., 2009). All the species of Termitomyces included in the thesis are being collected regularly by local inhabitants for personal consumption and some of them like T. heimii and T. mammiformis for earning revenue as well (Atri et al., 2005 b). During the present investigation some of the edible species, namely Termitomyces microcarpus, T. radicatus, T. badius, T. medius, T. heimii, T. striatus, T. mammiformis, T. reticulatus, Macrolepiota procera, M. rhacodes, M. dolichaula and Lepiota humei were evaluated for their nutritional and nutraceutical components following standard biochemical techniques. The results obtained have been compared with similar such investigations by other workers (Crisan and Sands 1978; Aletor and Aladetimi, 1995; Chang and Buswell, 1996; Shah et al., 1997; Adejumo and Awosanya 2005; Barros et al., 2007 a, 2008; Oboh and Shodehinde 2009; Nabubuya et al., 2010; Kumari et al., 2011 a; Ulziijargal and Mau 2011; Mattila et al., 2001; Olfati et al., 2009; Ferreira et al., 2007; Ramesh and Pattar 2010). Adejumo and Awosanya (2005) reported highest protein content in T. mammiformis (36.8%) followed by Lactarius triviralis and other mushroom species. Higher amount of protein content has also been reported in T. robustus (33.8%) 298

6 followed by other edible species (Aletor and Aladetimi, 1995). During the present investigation in comparison, in T. medius 46.2% protein has been evaluated followed by T. badius (44%) which is much more than documented by Adejumo and Awosanya (2005) in T. mammiformis and Aletor and Aladetimi (1995) in T. robustus. Oboh and Shodehinde (2009) while working on T. mammiformis from Nigeria recorded 28.6% protein in pileus and 24.6% protein in stipe. However, during the present investigation 23.45% protein content has been determined in the wild sample of T. mammiformis which is almost comparable. Masamba and Kazombo-Mwale (2010) while working with T. letestui documented 3.9% protein, 0.7% fats and 0.5% fibers. In comparison the amount of protein, fat and fiber content is much more in all the presently worked out species of Termitomyces from India. The present results showed that T. striatus has 60.27% carbohydrate followed by T. mammiformis (47.65%) while lowest carbohydrate content was recorded in T. microcarpus (33.5%) and T. medius (33.3%). The crude fiber content was highest in T. mammiformis (8% of dry weight) while lowest crude fiber was recorded in T. badius (2.5%). Adejumo and Awosanya (2005) documented 7.2% fiber content in T. mammiformis, which is almost comparable to the results arrived at with the Indian sample during the present investigation. Nabubuya et al., (2010) while evaluating the nutritional properties of T. microcarpus reported 25.48% protein, 2.32% lipid and 11.21% crude fiber. Mukiibi (1973) reported 27.4% crude protein, 4.3% fat, 2.2% fibers, 14.1% ash and 54.2 % carbohydrate in T. microcarpus. In comparison in the presently worked out Indian sample of T. microcarpus the amount of protein (37.54%) and fiber (5%) content is much more and carbohydrate content is much less (33%) while the amount of fat and ash is comparable with the results of Mukiibi (1973) in T. microcarpus. The crude fat percentage of 3.3% arrived at presently in T. microcarpus compared favorably well 299

7 with the values of % obtained by Mendal (1898). Gulati et al., (2011) while working on wild Lentinus sajor - caju, L. connatus, L. cladopus and L. squarrosulus reported %, carbohydrates, %, fibers, %, proteins and % ash content. As compared in all the species of Termitomyces evaluated presently, the percentage of proteins, fibers and ash is much more. Kumari et al., (2011 a) evaluated nutritional composition and antioxidant potential of 18 different wild Cantharellus mushrooms of north western Himalayas and reported, protein content as the principal macronutrient which ranged from mg/g. In the presently evaluated species of lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms, the amount of carbohydrates ranged from mg/g. As compared the amount of ash ( mg/g) and fat ( mg/g) in Cantharellus species reported by Kumari et al., (2011 a) is much below the range of the present findings. The amount of protein present in the lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms ( %) is much more than that of onion (1.4%), carrots (4%), peas (5.38 %), potatos (1.6%), orange (1.0%) and apple (0.3%) (FAO/WHO, 1989). Ulziijargal and Mau (2011) summarized the results of proximate studies of 38 fungi and 19 mycelia of medicinal mushrooms including Termitomyces albuminosus. Amongst the minerals investigated presently Fe content in T. mammiformis is highest (673 mg/100 g dry weight) followed by T. radicatus (482 mg/100 g dry wt.) and minimum in T. striatus (82 mg). In addition Termitomyces species are quite rich in Mg, which is 330 mg/100 g on dry weight basis in T. medius followed by T. heimii (287 mg) and minimum in T. microcarpus (6 mg/100 g). Mn and Ca contents were highest in T. medius (13 and 204 mg/100 g of dry weight). The amount of Zn (0.09 mg) is maximum in M. rhacodes followed by T. microcarpus (0.08 mg), whereas 300

8 minimum quantity of Zn (0.04 mg) has been recorded in T. radicatus. Maximum amount of Se (0.12 mg) has been recorded in T. microcarpus followed by 0.11 mg in T. heimii whereas minimum amount of this element has been evaluated in T. striatus (0.05 mg). While working with T. microcarpus, Nabubuya et al., (2010) evaluated 1465 mg K, 221 mg Ca and 156 mg/100 gm P in this species. Similar observations on mineral profile have been reported for Agaricus, Pleurotus and Lentinula species (Chang, 1996, Shah et al., 1997, Mattila et al., 2001). Olfati et al., (2009) evaluated 8.8 mg/g P, 23.9 mg/g K, 1.1 mg/g Na, 1.4 mg/g, Ca, 1.8 mg/g Mg, 1.56 % Ash and % DM in M. procera whereas in the presently studied species of M. procera 276 mg/100 g Fe, 254 mg/100 g Mg, 9 mg/100 g Cu, 5 mg/100 g Mn, 14 mg/100 g Ca, 0.08 mg/100 g Se, 0.06 mg/100 g Zn and 1.93% ash content has been evaluated. Fasidi and Ekuere (1993) reported high amount of Ca in wild edible mushrooms. Gulati et al., (2011) while working with five edible species of Lentinus documented mg Ca, mg Mg, Na, mg K, mg Cu, mg Zn and mg Fe, each per 100 g of the dry sample. Elekes et al., (2010) reported the bioaccumulation of some heavy metals in the fruiting body of wild mushrooms. Stihi et al., (2011) determined the heavy metal content of the fruiting bodies of Lycoperdon perlatum and Pleurotus ostreatus from Romania in metal smelter region. The content of heavy metals of the fruiting bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus have been reported to range from , , , , , , and mg/kg dw. for Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se and Cd, respectively. The content of heavy metals of the fruiting bodies of Lycoperdon perlatum have been reported to range from , , , , , , , and 301

9 mg/kg d.w. for Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Cd and Pb, respectively, which are much on the higher side as compared to the present findings. Jonathan et al., (2011) evaluated fruit bodies of a wild edible Lentinus squarrosulus for food values, mineral elements composition, heavy metal accumulation, production of exopolysaccharides and aflatoxin contamination. Presently it has been found that lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms does absorb and accumulate toxic metals. Traces of some heavy metals viz. Hg ( mg/100 g), As ( mg/100 g) and Cd ( mg/100 g) were found in the dry samples of lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms. The possible reason for this could be that the locations from where these were collected may be having some infestation of heavy metals. Mushrooms have been reported to possess very effective mechanisms that enable them to readily absorb heavy metals from their substrate (Cibulka et al., 1996; Isiloglu et al., 2001; Turkekul et al., 2004). There are reports of high concentrations of heavy metals in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms collected adjacent to heavy metal smelters and oil polluted areas (Kalač et al., 1991, 1996; Isiloglu et al., 2001). In a study on Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus and mushrooms of Boletus family Demirbas (2001) reported Agaricus bisporus accumulating very high concentration of Cd and Hg. Ita et al., (2006) analyzed heavy metal levels in 10 fruiting bodies of edible and non-edible mushrooms from the Niger delta region of Nigeria and the levels in all the edible species (Polyporus frondosis, Armillariella mellea, Pleurotus sapidus, Polyporus sulphureus, Pleurotus ostreatus) was within the stipulated FAO/WHO (1976) dietary standards as has also been observed during the present investigations. Total phenolic content evaluated in the presently investigated species is significantly higher than reported in Lycoperdon perlatum, Clavaria vermicularis, 302

10 Marasmius oreades, Russula delica, Morchella conica, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Ganoderma lucidum and Coriolus versicolour (Mau et al., 2002; Aziz et al., 2007; Ferreira et al., 2007; Türkoğlu et al., 2009; Ramesh and Pattar, 2010). The higher content of total phenols in the termitophilous mushrooms provides sufficient documentary evidence to support their radical scavenging property. In lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms evaluated presently including T. heimii, T. mammiformis, T. microcarpus and M. procera the phenolic content ranged from mg/100 g. Puttaraju et al., (2006) evaluated the phenolic content of 23 wild edible mushrooms in which Termitomyces heimii ( mg/g), T. mammiformis ( mg/g), T. schimperi ( mg/g), T. microcarpus ( mg/g) and Macrolepiota procera ( mg/g) exhibited high to moderate antioxidant activity in methanolic and water extracts, respectively. In comparison in the presently worked out samples of T. microcarpus (25.85 mg/g), T. mammiformis (22.49 mg/g), T. heimii (21.32 mg/g) and M. procera (11.0 mg/g) the amount of phenolic contents evaluated is very high in methanolic extracts. Kumari et al., (2011 a, b) evaluated bioactive components in different Cantharellus species and Pleurotus florida (phenols mg/g, β-carotene μg, flavonoids mg/g) as has been done during the present investigations. In case of Termitomyces and Macrolepiota species the amount of phenol content (25.85 mg/g) evaluated is much more in comparison to β-carotene which is much less (0.11 μg), however, the amount of flavonoids is comparable. Witkowska et al., (2011) studied M. procera along with 15 other wild edible species for their antioxidant potential and reported very low β-carotene (1.1 μg/g in T. heimii and 1.5 μg/g in T. badius), Lycopene (1.03 μg/g in T. heimii and 1.27 μg/g in T. 303

11 striatus) and Alkaloids (0.046 mg/g in T. radicatus, T. heimii and mg/g in M. dolichaula). The amount of carotenoids, alkaloids and flavonoids documented in these mushroom extracts were very low, which emphasizes the idea that for most of the antioxidant property of these mushrooms phenolic compounds may be the major contributors. Similar observations have been documented by Barros et al., (2007 c) in Portuguese wild edible mushrooms and in the termitophilous and lepiotoid mushrooms evaluated during the present investigations. The nutritional data generated during the present investigations indicate that 100 g of these mushrooms provide an average amount of energy in kcal as has been evaluated for M. rhacodes (364.7 kj) which is the highest value obtained and T. microcarpus ( kj) which represents the lowest energy value evaluated. This is comparable to the average value of energy documented by Mukiibi, (1973); Zakia et al., (1964); Adriano and Cruz, (1933) in 5 Termitomyces sp. ( kj) and Lepiota species including Lepiota procera ( kj). This energy value is slightly more than what has been documented during the present study. An important factor in the overall nutritional values of a food is its vitamin content. A significant amount of different vitamins in the fruit bodies of studied mushrooms have been estimated. All the studied mushrooms contained good amount of vitamins including vitamin C content (up to 1.45 mg/100 g) which is maximum in comparison to other vitamins. Vitamin C is one of the major contributors to the antioxidant activity of fruits, vegetables and mushrooms (Caglarlrmak et al., 2002). The amount of vitamin C in the presently investigated mushrooms is significantly higher in comparison to the amount of vitamin C in Lycoperdon perlatum, Clavaria vermicularis, Marasmius oreades, Russula delica, Morchella conica and Pleurotus pulmonarius (Türkoğlu et al., 2009; Aziz et al., 2007; Ramesh and Pattar 2010). 304

12 Pleurotus ostreatus has been reported to contain higher amount of vitamin C followed by niacin and riboflavin (Patil et al., 2010). The presently examined mushrooms were also found to be good source of vitamin B complex which helps in the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. These species contained good amounts of thiamine (up to 0.75 mg/100 g) and riboflavin (up to 0.23 mg/100 g). Furlani and Godoy (2007) analyzed vitamins B 1 and B 2 contents in cultivated mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus sp.) and the results showed that the amount of thiamine (vitamin B 1 ) ranged from to 0.08 mg/100 g in comparison to riboflavin (vitamin B 2 ), which ranged from 0.04 to 0.3 mg/100 g. As compared in the presently investigated taxa, the amount of vitamin B 1 evaluated is 0.80 mg/100 g and vitamin B mg/100 g, which is substantially high. Pereira et al., (2012) studied chemical and nutritional inventory of Portuguese wild edible mushrooms in different habitats. Bernas and Lisiewska (2006) evaluated edible mushrooms as a source of valuable nutritive constituents. The results obtained in the present study are in agreement with the similar nature of work from elsewhere (Barros et al., 2007 a, b, c, 2008; Grangeia et al., 2011; Heleno et al., 2009; Ouzouni et al., 2009) Enzyme Assay Another important characteristic factor in the overall composition of mushrooms is occurrence of various enzymes in these mushrooms. Besides analyzing the fruit bodies of lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms for their proximate nutritional composition, mycelium of these mushrooms has also been studied for the presence of enzymatic activity. Results indicate that these mushrooms possess capability to produce lignocellulosic enzymes with potential to be efficient degrader of agro-wastes. 305

13 In the present study ligninolytic enzyme activity has been found to be influenced by the type of substrate in the media. It was observed that wheat straw broth triggers substantial laccase production. Extracellular protein chemical inducers such as ABTS, veratrylacohol and pyrogallol increased the laccase activity to significant levels. The positive inductive effect of these inducers on laccase production is already known in many organisms including fungi (Ulmer et al., 1984; Ardon et al., 1998; Niladevi and Prema, 2008). Tripathi et al., (2011) in case of Lentinus squarrosulus showed high ABTSoxidizing activity, which gave positive reaction immediately after inoculation and formed dark green zone around the mycelial bit, as compared to Bjerkandera adusta which showed very low ABTS-oxidizing activity as represented by very light green colour after 5 th days of inoculation. In comparison in the presently evaluated mushrooms for laccase spot test, M. rhacodes and Lepiota humei showed immediate positive reaction, whereas laccase activity was found to be absent in T. radicatus and T. mammiformis. Quantitatively during the present study U/ml extracellular laccase activity have been analyzed on the 15 th day of inoculation in M. rachodes in comparison to 57.2 U/ml analyzed by Tripathi et al., (2011). Bodke et al., (2010) screened 295 fungi for laccase production including Macrolepiota sp. ( U/l), Leucocoprinus sp. ( U/l) and Termitomyces sp. ( U/l) at different temperatures. When evaluated for extracellular protein activity, it was found to be higher after the 5 th day of inoculation in M. rachodes (23.6 µg) whereas in Lentinus squarrosulus Tripathi et al., (2011) reported much higher (34.5 µg) extracellular protein activity. Taprab et al., (2005) postulated that symbiotic fungi viz. 306

14 Termitomyces strain produces laccases which are potentially involved in fungus combs and facilitate mushroom growth Ethno-mycological Information Edible wild mushrooms are traditionally used in many Asian countries as food and medicine (Manzi et al., 1999; Akapaja et al., 2003; Sanmee et al., 2003, Atri et al., 2010). Various medicinal uses were reported by Nakalembe et al., (2009) for many species of termitophilous mushrooms viz, T. microcarpus, T. aurantiacus, T. eurhizus, T. clypeatus and T. tyleranus. Amongst various termitophilous mushrooms T. microcarpus has been reported to serve as a medicinal mushroom for the treatment of abdominal discomfort in newly borne babies, measles, cough, whooping cough, tuberculosis, delayed labour in women, postnatal bleeding in mothers and treatment of umbilical cords in newly borne babies and diseases linked to high blood lipids (Nakalembe et al., 2009; Nabubuya et al., 2010). As compared during the present investigation it was documented that different lepiotoid and termitophilous mushrooms are in use for culinary purposes but none of them except T. microcarpus is known for medicinal utility for treatment of indigestion and malnutrition. During the survey, it was found that respondents in the urbanized areas hardly possessed any information about their edibility. However, in the rural areas some respondents above 60 years possessed substantial knowhow about their edibility, recipes and medicinal utility particularly their use in the form of soup for the persons suffering with indigestion, malnutrition and anemia. Because of the importance attached to these due to their culinary relevance different mushrooms are popular by variety of their folk names in the areas of their occurrence for example Macrolepiota procera as Kandi Koir, Tatmour, Badi Chattri ; Termitomyces microcarpus as Bhat Koir, Bhatolian and T. heimii and other such species with long rooting 307

15 pseudorrhiza as Joru Koir, Goal Tatmour, etc. These are regularly collected during the monsoon season for personal consumption and some of them like T. heimii and T. microcarpus for earning revenue by selling these in bulk to local vendors (Atri et al., 2010). This is also a regularly practice in the other parts of the country as well (Rai et al., 1994; Rai, 1997; Bhaben et al., 2011; Ram et al., 2010; Shrivastava et al., 2011) CONCLUSION It is apparent from the present study that the termitophilous and lepiotoid mushrooms are well represented in the North West India. Many of the investigated mushrooms are edible and are being collected by local inhabitants for consumption. When evaluated for their nutritional and nutraceutical constituents, these mushrooms have been documented to possess substantial amount of protein, which is much more than the common vegetables. Presence of good amount of macro and micro nutrients and meager amount of heavy metals, which are well within the prescribed limits of edibility parameters as fixed by FAO, is yet another property of these mushrooms which accounts for their nutritional credentials. Amongst the various antioxidants evaluated, the amount of phenols is much more in the mushrooms as compared to other antioxidants like β carotene, lycopene, alkaloids, flavonoids and ascorbic acid. Besides, these mushrooms are also an excellent source of other valuable nutritive constituents like Vitamin C, Vitamin B 1, Vitamin B 2 as is the case with other mushrooms. There is a need to domesticate these mushrooms. In view of this few of them including Macrolepiota dolichaula, M. rhacodes, Termitomyces radicatus, T. mammiformis, T. heimii, Leucocoprinus cepaestipes and Lepiota humei have been cultured and their mycelium assayed for capability to degrade the lignocellulosic substrate. 308

16 In view of their popularity with rural masses and capability to utilize lignocellulosic substrates there is a need to pursue this work further for cultivating these so as to understand their biological efficiency of converting wheat straw, rice straw and other such substrate available in plenty in different parts of the country. Through domestication and bulk production, their availability for masses will increase many times besides adding to their revenue and at the same time this will result in reduced pressure for their bulk hunting from nature. This is how the dual purpose of meeting the human demand and conservation aspects can be targeted simultaneously which is so vital for conservation of the natural ecosystem and sustainability. The account presented in this thesis has shown that the mycological resources of the country are far from fully investigated. In view of their composition, mushrooms needs to be used directly in diet so as to promote health, taking advantage of the additive and synergistic effects of all the bioactive compounds present in them. Therefore, wild edible mushrooms such as species of Termitomyces and Macrolepiota a need to be domesticated for their large scale production and subsequent use as natural nutrition sources. Documentation of information on edible, medicinal and poisonous mushrooms as well as the different social and cultural practices associated with their use in ethnomedicinal practices in different parts of India is very important to sensitize the communities about the value of these mushrooms. Mycologists at times comment about the difficulty in recommending management approaches to conserve these mushrooms because of limited knowledge on their taxonomy, natural history, and ecology. Although our knowledge may indeed be meager on a species-by-species basis, however, it is broad in a general sense as has been observed during the present investigation. This knowledge provides enough 309

17 background to appreciate the diversity and their relevance in ecosystem maintenance in general and human welfare in particular. As has been suggested by Atri and Lakhanpal (2002) we need to take steps to conserve and manage this minor forest product by checking over exploitation through enforcement of regulations available under Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 310