Lab 1 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Transcription

1 PHAROS UNIVERSITY Faculty of Pharmacy & Drug Manufacturing Lab 1 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OBJECTIVE: Two of the most crucial steps in compounding any pharmaceutical product are the accurate weighing and measuring of the component ingredients of the formulation. In order to carry out these critical functions, the pharmacist must have a good knowledge of the three systems of measurement used worldwide: the Metric system, the Apothecary system, and the Avoirdupois system. The relation between the three systems should also be well understood. INTRODUCTION Weight is a measure of the gravitational force acting on a body and is directly proportional to the body s mass. The mechanical device designed for weighing is the balance and weights are used to keep the body in equilibrium. Measure is the determination of the volume of a body. Temperature and pressure have a pronounced effect on the volume, especially that of gases or liquids. I. THE METRIC SYSTEM: SYSTEMS OF WEIGHT AND MEASUREMENT The metric system is the preferred and most frequently used system of measurement in pharmacy. Since it is a decimal system, other denominations of measure in the system are easily and quickly generated as a 10th multiple at the basic unit. The advantages of the metric or decimal system are its simplicity and adaptability to everyday use. In many pharmaceutical procedures, very small and sometimes very large quantities of weight and volume are measured. To avoid the use of numbers with many zeros in such cases, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recognizes prefixes to be used to express fractions or multiples of the International System of Units (SI). The recognized prefixes, which are adjoined to an appropriate unit (as for example nanogram, Pico mole, femtosecond or megavolt), are listed in Table1. 1

2 Table1: Recognized prefixes, Fraction Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol 10-1 deci d 10 deka da 10-2 centi c 10 2 hecto h 10-3 milli m 10 3 kilo k 10-6 micro µ 10 6 mega M 10-9 nano n 10 9 giga G pico p tera T femto f peta P atto a exa E A. Weights in Metric system: The gram (g) is the unit of weight in the metric system. Unit Symbol Equivalent Kilogram Kg 1,000 g 1,000,000 mg = 10 6 mg Hectogram hg 100 g Decagram dag 10 g Gram g 1.0 g 1,000 mg Decigram dg 0.1 g 100 mg Centigram cg 0.01 g 10 mg Milligram mg g 1 mg Microgram µg g= 10-6 g mg = 10-3 mg Nanogram ng 10-9 g 10-6 mg One gram = 1,000,000 µg = 10 6 µg = 1,000 mg =10 3 mg = Kg = 10-3 Kg 2

3 B. Measures in Metric system : The Liter (L) is the unit of volume in metric system. Unit Symbol Equivalent Kilogliter K< 1,000 < 1,000,000 m< = 10 6 m< Hectoliter h< 100 < Decaliter da< 10 < Liter < 1.0 < 1,000 m< Deciliter d< 0.1 < 100 m< Centiliter c< 0.01 < 10 m< Milliliter m< < 1 m< Microliter µ< < = 10-6 < m <= 10-3 m< Nanoliter n< 10-9 < 10-6 m< 1 liter ( < ) = 1,000,000 µ< = 10 6 µ< = 1000 m< = 10 3 m< = 100 c< =10 2 c< = 10 d< = k< 1ml = 10 3 µ< ===================================================== II. THE ENGLISH (COMMON) SYSTEMS In the United States both the Apothecary and Avoirdupois Systems of Weight and Measurement are still sometimes used in handling of medicines (both weight and volume). 1-THE APOTHECARY SYSTEM: The Apothecary system was commonly used in the past by pharmacists and physicians as the system of weights and measures for prescribing and dispensing medications. Although it has largely been replaced by the less difficult metric system, the pharmacist still encounters these symbols in his/her routine practice. 3

4 A-Weights in Apothecary System The abbreviations of the denominations of apothecary weight are represented by the signs ounce, drachm, scruple, 8 and grain, gr. These long have been in use but possibly may be mistaken for one another in rapid or careless writing. Unit Symbol Equivalent 1 grain Gr 1 scruple 20 gr 1 drachm z 3 60 gr 1 ounce z 8 z 480 gr 1 pound lb 12 z 5760 gr B-Measures in Apothecary System Indeed, the apothecary system of fluid measure is still commonly used in a variety of products, both pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical, and everyone should be familiar with the gallon, pint, fluidounce, fluid drachm and minim. Unit Symbol Equivalent 1 minim m 1 fluid drachm flz 60 minim 1 fluidounce flz 8 fluid drachm 480 minim 1 pint pt or O 16 fluidounce 7680 minim 1 gallon gal 8 pints minim 2- THE AVOIRDUPOIS SYSTEM: The Avoirdupois system is a system of weight measurement only. Its basic unit, the grain, is the same as in the Apothecary system. The Avoirdupois ounce and pound differ in weight and symbols from those in the Apothecary system. The Avoirdupois pound is the pound to which we are all accustomed in our daily lives. It is also the weight measure in which bulk chemicals and over the counter pharmaceuticals are bought and sold. It is important to make this distinction from weights in the Apothecary systems, which are used only in the prescription or medication order. The abbreviations or signs of avoirdupois weight differ from those of apothecary weight, and care should be used to confound them. They are lb, pound; oz, ounce and gr; grain. Weights in Avoirdupois System Pounds Ounces Grains 1= 16= =

5 Relationships of Weights and Measures Tables of weights and measures and a table of practical equivalents should be kept in the prescription department The following equivalents should be well memorized. Equivalents of weight: 1 g =15.23 gr Equivalents of volume: 1 grain (gr) 1/15.4 gm D gm 1 grain (gr) 64.8 mg 1 minim (m) 1/ ml D 0.06 ml 1 fluid drachm (fl.z) 4 ml 1 drachm (z) 4 gm 1 fluid ounce (fl.z) ml D30 ml 1 ounce (z ) 31.1 D 30 gm 1 pound (Ib) Avoir du pois 1 pound (Ib) apothecary 454 gm 373 gm 1 pint (pt) 473 ml D500 ml 1 gallon (gal) 3785 ml D 4 L 1 liter (L) 1 mililter (ml) 0.25 gal 16.2 m 5

6 Roman Numerals The Apothecaries' system rationally uses Roman numerals in place of Arabic numbers. In roman numerals, we put the unit of measurement before the numeral. e.g. 5 grain would be written gr V. 3 grain would be written gr III Values of single Numerals: ss = 1/2 L or l = 50 I or i or j = 1 C or c = 100 V or v = 5 D or d = 500 X or x = 10 M or m = 1000 Values of combined Numerals: a] When a smaller value or the same value numeral follows another numeral; the numerals are to be added. 1. II = VI = 5+1= 6 3. XXIII = = 23 b] When a larger value numeral follows another numeral, the smaller value is to be subtracted from the larger value. 1. I V = 5-1 = 4 2. I X = 10-1 = 9 3. V C = = L I V = = 54 6

7 Work Sheet Student Name:... Section:... ID Number:... Convert the following Roman numerals to Arabic numerals: CCXXXII... IVss... XLIII... XII... XL... XIV... XIX... XCIV... CIII... LVI... Add the following and express the total in mg g mg µg = g g µg mg =... Add the following and express the total in liters. 60 ml L ml =... Solve the appropriate equivalents for each of the following: ml =...fl.z mg =...gr ml =...fl.z ml =...tsp ml =...Tbs The doctor prescribes 10gr = gr X of a medical for a patient. How many milligrams of medical should the patient receive?... Calculate the metric equivalents of weight and measures in the following: -Ammonium carbonate gr v...gm -Thymol gr iss... gm - Menthol gr i... gm - Oil of lavender fl.z ss... ml -Eucalyptol fl.z ii... ml - Alcohol fl.z ii... ml 7

8 Household measures (Domestic measures) In appropriating doses for a patient, the practitioner is usually compelled to order the liquid medicine to be administered in certain quantities that have been established by custom and are estimated as follows: Teaspoonful (tsp) = 5 ml Dessertspoonful = 10 ml Tablespoonful (Tbs) = 15 ml Coffee cupful = 30 ml Tea cupful = 120 ml Cupful = 240 ml In almost all cases, careful tests have found that modern teacups, tablespoons, dessertspoons and teaspoons to average 25% greater capacity than the theoretical quantities. Therefore, the physician and pharmacist should recommend the use of calibrated dropper, medication cup and calibrated spoons. 8

9 Experiment I; Domestic Measures Objective: to demonstrate variation in domestic measures. Procedure: 1- Using suitable measuring cylinders, determine the actual capacity of the following household measures: a. A teaspoonful b. A dessertspoonful c. A tablespoonful d. A coffee cupful 2- Report your results in tabular form and write your comments. Domestic Actual capacity Theoretical capacity Error % measure (ml) (ml) Teaspoonful Dessertspoonful Tablespoonful Coffee cupful Note: % Error = Theoretical capacity - Actual capacity *100 Theoretical capacity 3- Compare your results with those of other students. 9

10 Measurement of Pharmaceutical Liquids To accurately and rapidly measure liquids, the pharmacist should have graduated cylinder, burette, graduated pipette and dropper, from which to select the proper measuring vessel. 1. Measuring cylinders Size of cylinder (c.c) Minimum volume giving (5% error c.c) Small volume of liquid is usually measured by graduated pipettes. 3. Volume of liquid less than 1 ml is usually measured by a dropper. Experiment II Measuring by means of droppers Objective: To illustrate the influence of some factors on the number of drops per unit volume. Principle: The USP medicine dropper is 3 mm in external diameter at its delivery end and when held vertically, delivers 20 drops of water at 25 C, weighing 0.9 to 1.1 g. However, the volume of drop depends on many factors, including density, temperature, surface tension, viscosity and the size and nature of the orifice from which it is delivered. Procedure: 1. Fill a dropper with one ml of the following liquids: a. water b. alcohol c. glycerol. 2. Hold the dropper vertically and count the number of drops. 3. Repeat step 2 using each of other liquids. 10

11 4. Record your results in a tabular form. 5. Comment on your results. Liquid under test Number of drops in 1-ml Water Alcohol Glycerol 11

12 Dispensing techniques The process of a small scale manufacture of medicines from basic ingredients is called compounding or dispensing. In any dispensing process, the end product is going to be used or taken by a patient. Therefore it is important that the medicine should be of highest achievable quality and this means that the highest standards must be applied during preparation process. Compounding and good practice requires: Organization: The environment in which you work will have influence on your efficiency. Therefore, it is important to develop a tidy and organized method of working. Cleanliness: The bench, equipment, tools you use and the container holding the final product must all be thoroughly clean. Cleanliness minimizes microbial contamination. Appearance: A clean white coat should be worn preventing outdoor clothes becoming stained if spillages occur and any skin lesions covered with a dressing. Documenting procedures and results: Records including the formula, ingredients, and quantities used, their sources, batch numbers and expiry date must be kept. Also, records for a prescribed item should include the patient, prescription and date of dispensing. Dispensing techniques are classified into: 1. Weighing 2. Measuring liquids 3. Mixing and Grinding 4. Heat Sources I. Weighing Balances are the equipment used for weighing technique. There are three types of balances: class I, class II and class III. All balances must be calibrated in metric units and all new balances must be marked with both maximum and minimum weights that can be weighed. 12

13 Classes of balances with their weighing capabilities Type Min. Weight Increment weight Max. weight Class I 50 mg 1 mg 1 gm Class II 100 mg 10 mg 50 gm Class III 1 gm 100 mg 2 kg The balance most commonly used in dispensing is class II balance. Pointer scale pan Nowadays the move is to use. Electronic top-pan balances Use of top pan balance: 1. Ensure the balance is level and working properly. 2. Place a weighing paper on the pan and use the auto-zero to cancel its weight. 3. Add the material to be weighed until the correct weight is shown on the display. 4. Carefully remove the weighed substance from the pan. Sensitivity of Balance: Is defined as the least weight which makes the pointer moves one scale division from the original rest point. The smaller the weight required, the more sensitive is the balance. Percentage of error The error in weighing should not exceed 5% % error = sensitivity * 100 Weight 13

14 Example: using the sensitivity of 10 mg, what would be the % error in weighing 200 mg? % error = 10 * 100 = 5% 200 Smallest quantity that can be weighed on a given balance = sensitivity *100 % error Notes: In addition to use the balance correctly, there are some rules that should be considered when weighing to ensure good dispensing practice: 1. If using a solid material which requires to be size reduced or sieved, this is carried out before weighing the required quantity to avoid loss of the material.the best approach is to roughly weigh an excess quantity. Grind or sieve it firstly, then accurately weigh off the required quantity. 2. Never split quantities and do two weighing, this will increase the inaccuracy. 3. If a quantity less than the sensitivity of balance is needed, it is necessary to weigh the minimum weight allowable and make an excess of the product or prepare it by Trituration ( Dilution of potent powdered drug for weighing it, by mixing the drug with a suitable diluent in a definite proportion by weight, e.g. for diluents; is Lactose). III. Mixing & Grinding: Are carried out using Mortar & Pestle. Mortars & Pestles are used in: 1. Reducing size of powders. 2. Mixing powders. 3. Mixing powders & liquids. 4. Making emulsions & suspensions. Two types of Mortars & Pestles are found, each in varying sizes: 1. Glass mortars & pestles: The smooth surface of the glass reduces the friction which can be generated. They are therefore not suitable for size reduction, except for friable materials such as crystals. They are suitable for: - Dissolving small quantities of ingredients. 14

15 - Mixing small quantities of fine powders. - Mixing of colored substances, such as dyes which can be absorbed by & stain porcelain mortar. 2. Porcelain mortars & pestles: They have a rougher surface. They are ideal for: - Size reduction of solids. - Mixing larger quantities of powders. - Mixing solids & liquids as in the preparation of suspensions & emulsions. A. Mixing Solids with Solids: Manipulative Techniques. Using the Mortar & Pestle, 1. Adequate mixing will only be achieved if there is sufficient space, thus overfilling of the mortar should be avoided. 2. The pestle should be rotated in both right & left directions. 3. Undue pressure should not be used, as this will cause impaction of the powder on the bottom of the mortar. ** As well as the correct use of a mortar & pestle, the amounts of material being mixed together must be considered. Where the quantity of material to be mixed is small and the proportions are approximately the same: the materials can be added to an appropriately sized mortar and effectively mixed. Where a small quantity of powder has to be mixed with large quantity: in order to achieve effective mixing, it must be done in stages as shown in Exp.1. Exp.1: Mixing 0.5 g Charcoal with 4.5 g Lactose : 1. Charcoal 0.5 g is placed in a glass mortar. 2. A quantity of Lactose, approximately equal in volume to the 1 st, is added and carefully mixed, using the glass pestle, until uniformly mixed. 3. A further quantity of Lactose, approximately equal in volume to that mixture present in mortar is now added & again mixed well. 4. This process known as "Doubling up'' or '' Geometric dilution'' method is continued until all the powder has been added. 15

16 B. Mixing Solids with Liquids: Exp. 2 : Prepare the following solution: R x Sodium bicarbonate 350 mg Glycerol 3ml Water to 20ml Note: - NaHCO 3 is soluble in water. - Glycerol is a viscous vehicle. Procedure: mg of NaHCO 3 is weighed & placed in a small beaker. 2. Add about 15 ml of water & stir the contents of the beaker with a glass rod until bicarbonate is completely dissolved. 3. Transfer the solution to a 25 ml measuring cylinder & (not 20), & adjust volume to 17 ml with water. 4. Glycerol is viscous & trying to pour 3ml from a cylinder is inaccurate (residual quantity remain in cylinder) so the 3ml of Glycerol can now be added by pouring it into 17ml of bicarbonate solution & carefully making the volume in the measuring cylinder up to 20ml, So we will be sure that 3ml of the Glycerol are taken. ** Viscous Liquids such as Glycerol can be measured by difference. C. Weight & Volume Relationship: * If we add 5ml of water to 95 ml of water, then we will have a total volume of 100 ml of water. * However, if we add 5g of salt to 95 ml of water & stir the mixture until the salt has dissolved, then we will have a total volume of solution above 95 ml, but, may be less than 100 ml or may be greater. The salt occupies a space & displaces some of the water such that the total volume of solution is more than 95ml. Displacement Volume: Is the quantity of solvent that is displaced by one gram of solid during dissolution. Exp. 3: Calculating the displaced volume: Procedure: 1. Weight 5g of sodium chloride & put them in 25 ml measuring cylinder. 2. Add 20 ml of water & dissolve the salt using a glass rod. 3. Measure the total volume of solution. 4. Determine the Displacement volume / g. Displacement volume = volume of solution volume of water (20 ml) Weight of salt (5g) 16

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