Relationship between the curriculum system and the understanding of nutritional terms in elementary school children

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1 Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKjcsInternational Journal of Consumer Studies Blackwell Science, Original ArticleCurriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school childreny. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Relationship between the curriculum system and the understanding of nutritional terms in elementary school children Yoko Suzuki 1 and Martha Rowedder 2 1 Department of Home Economics Education, Nara University of Education, Takabatake-cho, Nara , Japan 2 Department of Health and Physical Education, Lock Haven University, Lock Haven, PA 17745, USA Abstract To clarify the relation between the curriculum system and the understanding of nutrition terms, 944 students aged 8 12 years living in Japan, the USA and the UK, were asked about the recognition, medium for recognition, and understanding of nutrition terms. The effect of nutrition education from an early stage in elementary schools in the UK and the USA was confirmed. These results suggest the possibility of beginning nutrition education earlier in the elementary school in Japan. American students had paid attention to food labels. These results showed that a learning and teaching strategy founded on comprehensively based subjects in the USA had influenced good behaviour for dietary life. On the other hand, there was not a relationship between an understanding of nutrition terms and a developmental stage. Many students in three countries were influenced by television commercials to buy candy or soda. We think that it is important to develop a curriculum that includes practical learning and ensures hours of teaching for the purpose of acquirement of nutritional knowledge. It is also necessary to encourage critical thinking skills to evaluate television commercial messages through school lessons. Keywords Nutrition instruction, elementary school curriculum, health education, home economics, foods instruction. Introduction There are striking differences between the curriculum systems of Japan, the UK and the USA. The purposes of this study are to clarify the relation between the curriculum system and the understanding for nutritional terms, and to further our understanding of learning and Correspondence Yoko Suzuki, Department of Home Economics Education, Nara University of Education, Takabatake-cho, Nara , Japan. suzukiy@nara-edu.ac.jp teaching strategies for nutrition education in elementary schools in the USA and Japan. In Japan, curriculum standards are prescribed in the Courses of Study issued by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, renamed in The Courses of Study provide the basic framework for curricula: the aim of each subject, and the aim and content of teaching at each grade, so that all Japanese students compulsorily study the same content. The Courses of Study is revised approximately every 10 years; the Courses of Study for elementary school published 1989 has come into effect from 1992 to The most recent revision was published in 1998 and will come fully into effect in 2002 April. The Courses of Study described that nutrition education is taught mainly in the Homemaking class for fifth to sixth graders, students aged years and years. Therefore, first to fourth graders do not learn anything about food. In the UK, the National Curriculum by the Department for Education clarified compulsory subjects and specified the aim and content of each subject, as in Japan in 1995, and revised this in The National Curriculum in the UK does not have legal restriction. Nutrition education is taught in the Science, Design & Technology and PSHE (Personal, Social and Health Education) classes from first to sixth in elementary school, students aged 5 11 years. Science and Design & Technology are compulsory subjects. 2,3 PSHE adopts the comprehensively based subjects, but is not a compulsory subject. In the USA, there are no government curriculum standards. There is no formal relationship between grade level and curriculum content for nutrition. Nutrition education is taught in comprehensively based subjects such as Health and Family Life from kindergarten to sixth grade in elementary school, with pupils ranging in age from 5 to 12 years. In recent years, school-based nutrition education has been focused 4 6 and agencies have developed food and nutrition programmes for the 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp

2 Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder school-aged child. 7,8 In one study, a theoretical framework for studying school nutrition education programmes was developed, which argued the influence of home and family and school on children s nutrition knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. 9 Healthy food habits formed early have the potential to persist into adulthood 10 and can lead to the prevention of chronic disease Many factors influence the nutritional well-being of children. Children receive nutritional information from home and family, television commercials and food products, not to mention school. 14,15 However, we believe that schools will provide the most accurate knowledge, and we think that nutrition education from an early stage of school study will produce a good effect on children. Studies of food in school include many subject areas, for example, nutrition, cooking technology, cooking science, consumer education and religious education. Above all, nutrition education leading to maintaining health and growth is the most important, and so we focused on these nutrition terms. Therefore, the contents of studying for the nutrition in elementary school were compared and the degree of recognition and understanding of nutrition terms of elementary school students who studied under the different learning and teaching strategies were investigated in this study. Methods Comparison of contents of studying for nutrition Regarding Japan, the Courses of Study for Homemaking Education 16 was studied. Regarding the UK, the National Curriculum for Science 2 and Design & Technology 3 were studied. Regarding the USA, the Teaching Plan for Health Education by Keystone Central School District in Pennsylvania 17 was studied. Questionnaire survey A total of 944 students (366 Japanese, 250 English and 328 American) participated in this survey. Japanese students living in Mie Prefecture and Nara Prefecture were investigated in English students living in Merseyside were investigated in American students living in Pennsylvania were investigated in Eight nutrition terms for the questionnaire were selected after referring to the home-making education textbooks for fifth and sixth graders in Japan. 18,19 Nutrition terms selected were carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamin C, carotene, calcium, mineral and dietary fibre. In the USA survey, liquid was used instead of fat, so that results of liquid were omitted. Degree of recognition and understanding of these nutrition terms were investigated. Degree of understanding of nutrition terms was examined by selecting a right answer from three items that showed foods, including the nutrients. Last, the influence of television commercials on the purchase of candy or soda. 20 Results and discussion Comparison of contents of studying for nutrition In the first place, the contents of studying nutrition in elementary school were compared. Contents of studying nutrition in Japan are shown in Table 1, contents of studying in the UK are shown in Table 2 and example study planning in the USA is shown in Table 3. With regard to Japan, first to fourth graders do not learn anything about food, and nutrition is taught with food study and cooking preparation in the fifth and sixth grades. With regard to the UK, nutrition education is taught in Science, Design & Technology and PSHE, however, detailed contents about nutrition were shown in Science in the National Curriculum only. The contents in Science lean toward humans as organisms. Food Technology, which is one subject of Design & Technology, covers food, tools, food processing, hygiene and sensory evaluation. In actual fact, Science and Design & Technology teaches nutrition across the curriculum. Dietary habits and food culture are taught in PSHE mainly. With regard to the USA, nutrition leans towards being taught with food selection in Health Education. Degree of recognition, medium for recognition and degree of understanding of nutrition terms The number and percentage of recognition, percentage of medium for recognition of nutrition term, and number and percentage of understanding of nutritional term 250 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp Blackwell Science Ltd

3 Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children Table 1 Contents of nutrition and food in Homemaking Education in Japan by course of study for Homemaking Education, 1989 Contents Fifth grade, years old 1. Understand the nutrients necessary for one s body 2. Understand the functions of major nutrients 3. Identify primary food sources of each 4. Understand the need to take food in assortment 5. Food group 6. Understand the nutritional value of egg and do simple cooking 7. Understand the nutritional value of vegetables and do simple cooking 8. Cook tea and snack for family Sixth grade, years old 1. Understand the nutritional intake of food 2. Prepare a menu for a meal using Food group 3. Understand the nutritional value of rice and cook rice and Miso soup 4. Cook using potato 5. Understand how to make good use processed food from meat or fish, and cook using them 6. Understand the significance of eating in family living, and make and plan meals for family party Table 2 Contents of nutrition in Science in the UK by Science in the National Curriculum, 1995 Contents Key stage 1, 5 7 years old 1. Humans need food and water to stay alive 2. Taking exercise and eating the right types and amount of food helps humans to keep healthy Key stage 2, 7 11 years old 1. The functions of teeth and the importance of dental care 2. Food is needed for activity and for growth, and an adequate and varied diet is needed to keep healthy Key stage 3, years old 1. Balanced diets contain carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, fibre and water 2. Some sources of the main food components in the diet 3. Food is used as a fuel during respiration to maintain the body s activity and as a raw material for growth and repair 4. The principles of digestion, including the role of enzymes 5. The products of digestion are absorbed and waste material is egested are shown in Table 4. All students in three countries showed a high degree of recognition of Protein, Vitamin C and Calcium. In the case of Carotene and Dietary Fibre, Japanese students showed a higher degree of recognition than English or American students. We suspect Carotene has been used rarely in English and American textbooks for children and Dietary Fibre has been put on the air through television commercials sometimes in Japan. In three countries, students aged years showed a higher degree of recognition than students aged 8 10 years, according to all terms except Carotene and Dietary Fibre. Regarding Medium for recognition, we thought that students have received a lot of information on nutrition through many different types of media. Although students had to select one medium in this questionnaire for analysis purposes, the medium that had made the strongest impression on the child was selected. Information regarding Fat, Protein, Vitamin C and Calcium, which showed higher degree of recognition, were obtained by many kinds of media. As Japanese students aged 8 10 years had not learned anything about nutrition in school, responses of School were very few, therefore they had obtained their information from Television or Family. In the case of students aged years in Japan, School was in first place in media items in Carbohydrate, Fat, Protein and Carotene. As Calcium, Mineral and Dietary Fibre had been used in many television commercials, especially in drinks, 15 Television was selected as first place. Many English students selected School. American students selected Food Label. We theorized that this choice was the result of the pragmatism of nutrition education activities using food labels that produced these results. Regarding the understanding of the nutrition terms Fat, Protein, Vitamin C and Calcium, which showed a higher degree of recognition, understanding of Vitamin C and Calcium was high, but Fat and Protein were relatively low. Except for some terms, students aged years showed a higher degree of understanding than students aged 8 10 years, as well as results of degree of recognition. Regarding Carbohydrate, Fat and Protein, which had not been used in 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp

4 Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Table 3 Example of teaching plan for Nutrition in Health Education in the USA by Keystone Central School District in Pennsylvania Contents Kindergarten to second grade, 5 8 years old 1. The food pyramid 2. Selecting foods and identifying behaviours that keep the body healthy 3. Varieties of foods 4. The role of breakfast in providing energy for work and play Third to fifth grades, 8 11 years old 1. Name energy sources common to all living things 2. Describe the functions of the major nutrients and identify primary food sources of each 3. Illustrate the function of nutrients in building strong bodies 4. Identify factors that influence personal food choices 5. Explain why a variety of foods are needed every day 6. Analyse the nutritional worth of food choices for meals and snacks 7. Interpret physical and mental consequences of a poorly balanced diet 8. Critically analyse food advertising, foods and fallacies Sixth to eighth grades, years old 1. Define nutrition and discuss the importance of a healthful diet 2. Identify the functions and types of proteins 3. Identify the functions of carbohydrates 4. Identify the functions of fats and gives examples of saturated and unsaturated fats 5. Discuss nutritional value of various snack and fast food 6. Identify diet guidelines to reduce the risk of getting cancer 7. Identify information required by federal law on food labels 8. Explain how to reach and maintain ideal weight and body composition 9. Define and discuss the risk associated with being overweight and obese 10. Discuss healthful and harmful ways to reduce Figure 1 Percentage of medium that was selected by correct responders when questioning the understanding of American students. many television commercials, degree of understanding of students aged 8 10 years in Japan was low compared with teaching and learning of nutrition for students aged 8 10 years in the UK or the USA. Furthermore, these results suggest that there are possibilities to begin nutrition education from an earlier stage in Japanese elementary schools. On the other hand, the medium that was selected by correct responders in the question of understanding of American students, is illustrated in Fig. 1. As few responded correctly to Carotene, Carotene was omitted. In the case of Carbohydrate, Protein and Mineral, School and Family showed a slightly higher percentage than Food Label. In the case of Vitamin C, Family was a higher percentage than Food Label. Food Label, which was in first place in media items in every nutrition term, did not always correspond with a high degree of understanding. Hours of watching television on a school day and influence of television commercials on the purchase of candy or soda Japanese students show a tendency to watch television for comparatively long times, 20,21 and American students watch Saturday morning and after-school cable television commercials. Therefore, hours of watching television on a school day and influence of television commercials on the purchase of candy or soda were investigated in this study. Regarding Hours of Watching Television on a School Day (Table 5), there were differences between students aged 8 10 years and aged years in Japan and the UK. In these countries, students aged years who watch television more than 2 h were above half numbers. Japanese and English students aged years showed a tendency to watch television longer than American students did. Regarding Influence of Television Commercials on Purchase of Candy or Soda (Table 6), there was not a significant difference between students aged 8 10 years and stu- 252 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp Blackwell Science Ltd

5 Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children Table 4 Number and percentage of recognition, percentage for medium of recognition and number and percentage of understanding of nutritional terms Recognition Medium for recognition (%) Understanding Term Country Grades n % TV Foods label Family School Doctor n % a % b Carbohydrate Japan UK USA Fat Japan UK Protein Japan UK USA Vitamin C Japan UK USA Carotene Japan UK USA Calcium Japan UK USA Mineral Japan UK USA Dietary fibre Japan UK USA a Rate for all answers. b Rate for number of recognition Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp

6 Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Table 5 Hours of watching television on a school day -0.5 h h 1 2 h 2 3 h +4 h Total Country Age n % n % n % n % n % n % Japan Total UK Total USA Total Difference age of Japan: P < Difference age of UK: P < Table 6 Influence of television commercials on purchase of candy or soda Always Often A little None Total Country Age n % n % n % n % n % Japan Total UK Total USA Total Difference: Japan total/uk total P < Difference: UK total/usa total P < dents aged years in the three countries. Comparing each total number of Japanese, English and American students, the percentage of always plus often in Japan was higher than the UK, and the percentage of always plus often in the UK was higher than the USA. The students in three countries were influenced by television commercials to buy candy or soda; therefore, we think that it is necessary to have specific lessons to encourage children to become good nutrition consumers by being able to evaluate television commercials wisely. Conclusion The effect of nutrition education from an early stage in elementary school in the UK and the USA was confirmed. These results established that there are possibilities to include nutrition education from an early stage in elementary schools in Japan. As American students had paid attention to food labels, a learning and teaching strategy founded on comprehensively based subjects in the USA had influenced good behaviour for dietary life, however, there was not a relationship between 254 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp Blackwell Science Ltd

7 Y. Suzuki and M. Rowedder Curriculum system and understanding of nutrition in school children understanding of nutrition terms and a developmental stage. We conclude that these results were caused by a shortage of teaching time. We think that it is important to develop a syllabus that includes practical learning and ensures hours of teaching for the purpose of acquirement of nutritional knowledge. Furthermore, many students in the three countries were influenced by television commercials, and so we think that it is necessary to encourage critical thinking skills to judge the worth of the message of television commercials through school lessons. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dr Ann M. Miller, Ms. Margaret Jepson, Dr Peggy Maxwell, Dr Allan F. Hackett and Ms. Paula Fox for coordinating the survey in the UK, and all the teachers and pupils who took part in this study. References 1. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1994) Education in Japan Gyosei Corporation, Tokyo. 2. Department for Education (1995) Science in the National Curriculum England and Wales. HMSO, London. 3. Department for Education (1995) Design and Technology in the National Curriculum England and Wales. HMSO, London. 4. Food and Nutrition Board Institute of Medicine (1991) Improving American s Diet and Health: from Recommendations to Action. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 5. US Department of Health and Human Services (1990) Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives, DHHS Publication No. (PHS) Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 6. Mullis, R., Owen, A. & Blaskovich, A. (1995) National Action Conference on Health for Children: a Policy Dialogue. Journal of Nutrition Education, 27, Frank, G., Vaden, A. & Martin, J. (1987) School health promotion: child nutrition programs. Journal of School Health, 57, Kalina, B., Philipps, C. & Minns, H. (1989) The NET program: a ten-year perspective. Journal of Nutrition Education, 21, Gillespie, A. (1981) A theoretical framework for studying school nutrition education programs. Journal of Nutrition Education, 13, Kelder, S., Perry, C., Klepp, K. & Lytle, L. (1994) Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity, and food choice behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 84, US Department of Health and Human Service (1998) Public Health Service. Surgeon General s Report on Nutrition and Health. US Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC. 12. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. (1988) Prudent life-style for children: dietary fat and cholesterol. Pediatrics, 78, National Cholesterol Education Program (1991) Highlights of the Expert Panel Report on Blood Cholesterol Levels in Students and Adolescents. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD. 14. Gorn, G. & Goldberg, M. (1982) Behavioral evidence of the effects of televised food messages on children. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, Suzuki, Y. (1996) Nutrition education for lower and middle grade pupils in elementary schools: an investigation of nutrition terms on TV commercials. Journal of Home Economics Education Society of Japan, 39, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1989) Teaching Textbook for Home Economics Education in Elementary School. Kairyudo, Tokyo. 17. Keystone Central School District Curriculum Office (1998) Saito, K. (1996) Our Homemaking 5/6 in Primary School. Kairyudou Syuppan, Tokyo. 19. Shibukawa, S. (1995) New Homemaking 5/6. Tokyo Syoseki, Tokyo. 20. Mutou, T. (1993) Television and Development of Children. University Syuppankai, Tokyo. 21. Hukaya, M. (1988) Monograph. Shougakusei, 7, Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 4, December 2002, pp