GABRIEL BADEA (MSc in Security & Risk Management) The Romanian Security Industry Association

Transcription

1 GABRIEL BADEA (MSc in Security & Risk Management) The Romanian Security Industry Association THE RELEVANCE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES IN INFORMING AND EDUCATING SECURITY MANAGERS 1

2 ABSTRACT Criminology is commonly regarded as a science associated with public functions of criminal justice, public policing and of lesser relevance to the private security sector. To get a better understanding on, how could criminological theories be of help to private security professionals, this paper starts by reviewing early schools of thoughts of modern criminology and some of the contemporary trends. Then, a couple of suitable theories i.e. the Rational Choice and the Routine Activity, regarded as being relevant to the security managers informational needs are presented and discussed. Some crime prevention, crime reduction models of great practical use in the management of security, deriving from the above mentioned criminological theories are analyzed in the last part of the paper. In addition, some concepts of the theoretical body of knowledge of the security management and inspired by criminological science are revised, as well. In conclusion this paper underlined the usefulness of including criminology in the educational programs of private security managers and how criminological theories may support security managers in approaching the crime and loss prevention from a more informed standing point and with a more pro-active attitude. Nevertheless some limitations in using criminological theories as guiding frames of private security operations are mentioned, as well. Topics of this paper were explored through a documentary research method. Relevant authors in the criminology, crime prevention and private security management fields were referred. The consulted volumes and other documentary resources are listed at the end of this paper. In addition some relevant good practices in the private security management are mentioned, as well. Such information is mainly derived from the author s and other security practitioners work experience. 2

3 1. INTRODUCTION According to Encyclopedia Britannica, "Criminology is the scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency, including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of diverse disciplines such as anthropology, biology, psychology and psychiatry, economics, sociology, and statistics." (Manheim, 2009) Therefore, from the perspective of a crime prevention utility of the study of criminology that is supposed to scientifically explain the crime phenomenon and to identify the triggering causes of crimes, criminologists are rightly expected to generate ideas, concepts, and principles able to support public and private actions in combating criminality. And indeed, oftentimes news media reports about crime tackling programs based on criminological studies. Usually, such programs are associated with public policies in various fields such as enhancing education, improving legal framework, and criminal justice systems, ameliorating living conditions of the population, etc. However, besides its prominent relevance to public policies on preventing crime, one way or another, still, criminology could equally help the private sector to fight the threatening criminality. 2. CRIMINOLOGY AND PRIVATE SECURITY PROFFESIONALS Unfortunately, the criminology science and its body of useful knowledge are widely ignored by many private security industry practitioners who mistakenly may regard the criminology as the sole privilege of scholars, thus of not much practical utility. Moreover there is a general belief, including among private security professionals that, there is no need for complicated science to explain crime, as long as a good dose of common sense may be enough to understand what to do in fighting crimes. On the other hand, it has to be acknowledged that there is a vast array of criminological theories is in existence these days, many of them of high scientific intricacy thus their immediate practical use may be not very easy distinguishable. In addition there are some antagonism and contradiction between different criminological school of thoughts. Consequently circumstances mentioned above are making rather difficult to security professionals, who usually tend to be some practical type of persons, to identify and rely on one or more suitable criminological theories of significant relevance to their day to day activity. Conversely, it has to be point out too, that by and large, criminology is rather ignoring the private security sector in spite of its significant contribution to public safety. (Clarke, 1997) Nevertheless, regardless such setbacks, still, the study criminology may be highly capable of providing both with solutions and guidance in all areas of private security management. 3

4 3. CRIMINOLOGY - A BRIEF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The beginnings of modern criminological science and of researches in this area are likely to be linked with the moment when the crime phenomenon became more a public issue rather than a private affaire as it used to be during the middle ages (Vold, Bernard & Snipes, 2002). As the human civilization evolved to modernity, the role carried out by the state as the steward of public order increased in significance. Therefore, methodical researches and studies about crimes, criminals and the system of legal punishment started to build-up in some coherent, scientifically developed criminological theories. Most of such theories are thought to bear the influences of the times when they had been developed, or the influences, of political views of their originators. Such particular circumstances, influences and approaches also determined to some extent, the taxonomy of the criminological theories, as well. In this respect, the Classicist Theories developed during the 18 th century are centered on the belief that crimes are deliberated actions of reasoning people. In other words, criminal acts are products of the free will of the individual who is capable of assessing the outcomes of crimes in terms of benefits and costs. Conversely, the adepts of the Classical School of thought consider that a swift and proportionate punishment, as the most effective deterrence to crimes. (Lilly, Cullen & Ball, 2002) Such conceptions should be regarded in the context of the Enlightenment times, also known as the Age of Reason. While the Classical School linked the crime to the individual's freedom of choice, the Positivist Criminology, place the causes of crimes outside and above the individual s rational process. Generally, positivist theories assert that the crime is more likely to be a complex result of some interacting, interfering, economic, social, biological, psychological and environmentally related factors (the criminogenic factors). From this perspective, the Positivist Criminology is usually divided into three branches, i.e. Biological Positivism, Psychological Positivism and Social Positivism. Theories of Biological Positivism argue that the criminality could be linked to certain biological body features and its anatomical functions. Psychological Positivism, explain criminality as being determined by some personal inborn psychological characteristics, such as the level of intelligence, and the attributes of personality like emotiveness, impulsivity, aggressiveness, tolerance, patience, etc. In contrast with Biological and Psychological theories, the Social Positivism explains the criminal act as being the result of economic and social living conditions. Amongst such criminogenic factors, they pointed out: poverty and economic inequality, unemployment, urbanizations and high population density, poor living condition and social disorganization, poor social services, racial inequality, social alienation and lack of opportunities for selffulfillment, gang subculture etc. (Vold, Bernard & Snipes 2002). 4

5 The study of criminological theories inspired by both the Classical School and Positivism may provide the private security practitioners with some interesting information and knowledge about the genesis and mechanisms of criminal thought and action. On the other hand, such theories are lesser prone to inspire some practical approaches to challenges that private security professionals are facing on a daily, namely the threats and risks to physical security of persons, goods and businesses. For example, the adepts of Classical School are centered on enhancing the penal system while positivist criminologists usually recommend an increasing number of social and economic programs and other forms of educational activities to be provided by the state as crime prevention strategies. Obviously, the private sector and security professionals have little or no saying both in terms of criminal justice reforms and governmental social programs, as well. Therefore, with no means to intervene over the causes determining the criminal behavior, that however are are still subject to debate among criminologists of various schools of thought, it would be sensible to assume that theories explaining the mechanism of crime by pointing out some criminogenic factors that are susceptible to alterations through means accessible not only to public and governmental structures but also to private actors, should be of a higher relevance to private security professionals. Looking from this perspective, the New Classicist theories could indeed be regarded as an appropriate choice. 4. THE CONTEMPORARY CLASSICIST THEORIES The neoclassicist criminology emerged in the late 20 th century in a context of massive expansion of private property with correlated extensive security needs and probably at the same time when public policies on more effective and efficient criminal justice (Fishcher, Halibozek & Green, 2008) and on improving socio-economic conditions in western societies seemed to fail to meet public expectations in curbing criminality (Felson, 2002 ) Essentially, neoclassicist criminological theories, besides the classical idea of the criminal as a calculator of costs and rewards of crime, are also introducing the concepts of opportunity and routine activities as key triggers of criminality. In this respect, they essentially maintain that people, regardless their natural predisposition and socio-economic status are engaging in crimes because they have the opportunity to do so and they perceive crime as rewarding enjoyable and of no or insignificant negative consequences. (Vold, Bernard & Snipes, 2002) Some three criminological theories are commonly perceived as part of the cluster of the Contemporary Classicism: the Deterrence Theory, the Rational Choice Theory, and the Routine Activity Theory. 5

6 The Deterrence Theory introduces the new concepts of the certainty of being caught and of the severity of the penalty much like the ideas of the Classical School's Italian scientist, Giovani Becarria. Consequently, the relevance of the Deterrence Theory to the private security sector seems to be limited as it prioritizes the deterrent effect of criminal justice policies (Vold, Bernard, Snipes & 2002, p.196). as the main response in fighting criminality. On the other hand, the Rational Choice and Routine Activity theories regard crime as the product of a rational decision, made by responsible people, who chose to offend, in order to benefits from their offense (Lilly, Cullen & Ball, 2002, 223). In the same time, the Routine Activity Theory stresses that crime occurrence is due to the time and space interference between a determined offender, a suitable target, in the absence of a capable guardian against the offense (Cohen & Felson quoted in Scarman Center, 2003: 1-25) The significance of both theories to private security sector becomes more evident as their concepts and elements are more closely examined. Firstly, the Rational Choice theory presumes that every offender makes a calculation about the costs and the benefits of the prospective offense. In this respect, the cost element of the offenses could be linked to the perceived efforts of the offenders in perpetrating the criminal act and the associated perceived risks of being caught and reprimanded. Regarding the benefits of the crime, the proponents of the above mentioned criminological theory are suggesting the money as the most desirable reward of criminal acts, money being regarded as a mean to achieve whatever self-gratification may seek to achieve trough the perpetration of the crime. Personal satisfaction resulted from engaging in expressive type of crimes (vandalism, destruction, etc.) may also be regarded as benefits of the criminal activity. For example, in the eyes of an offender, the target s convenience and its strength, the risk associated with the possibility to be observed, to be caught in the act (red handed) and nevertheless the likelihood to encounter a heavy and/ jeopardizing resistance from the victim, may be regarded as the cost elements of the crime equation (Lilly, Cullen, Ball 2002: 219,220). Furthermore, the amount of the needed effort to plan, to prepare and to complete the criminal act and afterward the efforts of converting stolen goods in desirable money ( for example, in cases of burglaries or robberies) could be viewed as topping up the perceived cost of the crime. (Scarman Center 2003, 3-20) On the other hand, crimes targeting light, valuable, easy to be detached goods that can be easily be converted into money (pieces of jewelry, hi-tech appliances, for example) are likely to be of higher frequency, assumingly the cost factor of the stealing activity would be significantly lower and a higher benefit is anticipated, too. 6

7 In a similar logic should be considered the suitable target concept of the Routine Activity Theory which is referring both to persons (victims) and properties A suitable target should pay off the offenders' risk and effort and ought to satisfy their immediate needs. Furthermore, a suitable target should be easy accessible (not requesting a hard or a supplementary effort and should be easily to be converted into money). Routine Activity Theory assumes a close correlation between the dimensions of the criminal phenomenon and the availability of "expensive," "durable", "portable" goods. (Cohen & Fenelson quoted in Lilly, Cullen and Ball, 2002: 237) The offender who is assumed to be some rational individuals is another important element of the crime equation in the view of both Rational Choice and Routine Activity theories. Apparently, the offenders do ponder the costs and the benefits of the crime as every regular person does about his or hers everyday-life decision. However, the offender's reasoning process means a series of choices including, the selection of the target, the selection of the appropriate means or tools, choosing and planning the appropriate escape routes, etc. In the same time, the reasoning process of the offenders is likely to be affected by pressure, perceived risk and other elements of uncertainty (Lilly, Cullen, Ball, 2002, 221). Besides, due to the adrenalin hormone discharge, the offending process is heavily influencing the process of rationing. Nevertheless, personal cognitive ability, combined with the amount of available time for planning and with the volume of the available accurate information are also important elements of the decisional process of criminals.(vito & Holmes quoted in Scarman Center 2003: 1-25) Consequently, due to specific limitations and constraints presented above, the decision to offend although is the result of a mental reasoning process it's not necessary a reasonable, well-minded decision, too. Similarly, the "determined offender" is regarded as low self-control individual, a "gratification seeker" (Lilly, Cullen, Ball, 2002: 236) therefore potentially with relatively weak reasoning capability. For such individuals, the propensity to offend is activated by the opportunity i.e. the concomitant interaction between a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian against the offence. The "opportunity" is also the most significant element of Rational Choice Theory, who equally links likelihood of offending with the incidence of the opportunities to offend. The Rational Choice Theory, also known as the Situationalism Theory." (Scarman Center 2003: 1-25) do believe that the opportunity fostered by situational circumstances is the key element of the rational process that led to crime. 7

8 5. THE SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION Evidently, the opportunity is also the key element in the development of Situational Crime Prevention strategy which may be regarded as a practical approach, developed on the concepts and principles of criminological theories of Rational Choice and Routine Activity. As a result, the foremost goal of the situational crime prevention approach is about taking away the opportunity (Scarman Center 2003) and altering the situations favorable to crime. Since its inception, the above-mentioned crime prevention strategy suggests some collections of techniques aiming to increase the perceived effort, to increase the risk, to reduce the anticipated reward, and to remove excuses of the offenders. According to Ronald Clarke (1997, p.4) who is the main contributor to both Rational Choice Theory and Situational Crime Prevention strategy, the above-mentioned techniques are "directed to highly specific forms of crime; involve the management design or manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and permanent way as possible; make crime more difficult and risky or less rewarding and excusable as judging by a wide range of offenders. It has to be mentioned that the Situational Crime Prevention model is kind of "work in process" project and new techniques may constantly be added. (R. Clarke, 1997) Considering the above mentioned features, the situational crime prevention model looks to be highly appealing to the private sector representatives especially because of its collection of techniques that are directly pointing out to measures commonly associated with the private management of security and to security solutions supplied by the private security sector. For instance, the Increasing the Effort category of measures includes four types of situational dealings i.e. Target Hardening," "Access Control," "Deflecting the Offender and Controlling Facilitators." In terms of hardening the premises and controlling the access to potential targets of crime, such objectives are usually achieved through the means of physical security i.e. reinforced gates and doors, improved locking systems, safe boxes, barriers, bollards, security graded fences, barbed wires, electronic access control systems, etc. Security Managers should be key players in implementing measures related to "Deflection of Offenders" and "Controlling Facilitators" techniques, as well. In this respect, they may rely on more complex sets of actions that may encompass landscaping, architectural, and physical security projects. Nevertheless, security managers are usually in advising position on some new business projects developed by their organizations, projects that may be facing of higher security risks. For example, by recommending a less intense advertising about a supermarket s refunding policy, the security manager of such business could achieve a significant reduction in refunding-abuse incidents as long as refund-abuse specialized offenders will be deflected being less aware of the generous refunding policy of the supermarket in question. 8

9 In the same way, through internal security policies, security managers may set and implement rules about controlling the means that facilitate crimes. For example, by forbidding people to carry weapons inside the banks, the risk of armed robberies is significantly reduced. Increasing the Risk is a second class of situational crime prevention techniques, comprising four categories of actions namely Screening of People," Formal Surveillance," Surveillance by Employees and Natural Surveillance." Again, security managers and private security play a major role in implementing the abovementioned crime-reducing measures. For instance, in response to increased terrorist risk, screening of bags and luggage is routinely performed by private security officers in places such as football stadiums, supermarkets, and public entertainment places, etc. Exit screens are implemented too in order to prevent stealing of valuable goods from secured premises. Moving on to the Formal Surveillance," according to Ronald Clark (1997, p.20) it is to be provided by police and private security officers, as well. Additionally, formal surveillance can be enhanced by security camera (CCTV) networks and intrusion detection systems. In terms of implementing formal surveillance, security managers are supposed to be enough capable in choosing between the appropriate physical security measures and suppliers but also in drafting specifications, and standard operating procedures for security officers and CCTV operators, to the least. Nevertheless, security managers are important actors in regard to implementing an effective system of "Surveillance by Employees," Employees, especially in industries such as retail, hospitality (Clark, 1997), etc. could achieve higher level of effectiveness in spotting and reporting potential security threats, through proper training and procedures designed by professional security specialists. In the same way, natural surveillance could be resorted to increasing the early detection capability of crime. In this respect security managers may consider a vast array of measures such as improving security lighting, removing obstacles including vegetation that obstruct visibility, supporting whistleblowers both from within and outside their organizations. The third Reward-Reducing group of crime reducing techniques comprises Target Removal," "Denial the Benefits," "Reducing the Temptation "Identifying Property sets of measures. In this respect for instance, by implementing a security policy of systematically collecting cash from supermarkets or gas stations at the end of the day and send them to the bank, the risk of thefts, robberies, and burglaries is supposed to decrease significantly. Similarly using ATMs cash boxes fitted with indelible ink dispensers that render worthless the banknotes inside, security managers aim to eliminate any incentive of attacking such targets by denying the benefits of the crime. An increased effect of reducing temptation may be induced by a security policy of identifying the property. Marking valuable goods simply by writing the name of the owners (persons or 9

10 organizations) makes them easily to be detected in case of unauthorized removal and also increase risk of exposure when the thieves try to use them or to convert them into money. The fourth group of techniques proposed by the Situational Crime Prevention model (that is about Reducing Excuse, inducing the shame or guilt to would-be offenders) could be of a real inspiration and benfit to security managers and their organization, especially because the cost of implementing such measurs and policies are evidently lower than investing in physical security. This is because the techniques of this cluster refer mostly to measures such as Rule Setting, stimulating conscience, controlling disinhibitors, and facilitating compliance. Setting rules about sensitive operations such as handling of cash and manipulating high valuable company s property must be of a top priority for businesses. The absence of clear and comprehensive regulation is likely to be exploited sooner or later by determined, opportunistic wrongdoers. Conversely, security managers may systematically conduct internal programs consisting of seminars and campaigns aiming to rise the employees awareness on security regulations thus stimulating conscience about the negative side of offending. Controlling disinhibitors also is normally a key priority in managing security of the private businesses. For example, employees under alcohol or drugs' influence have their cognitive and self-control capability severely affected thus they are increasingly likely to engage in all sorts of crimes including serious offences related to workplace violence. Facilitating Compliance" the last technique of the situational crime prevention model should equally be regarded as a quite effective tool in implementation security regulations. For example, in order to increase detection of stolen goods supermarkets ar likely to introduce a policy of preventing customers from entering their shopping area with bags and extra luggage. Providing the visitors with safe boxes for their luggage is an example of an effective measure to facilitate compliance to a rule aming to tackle shop-lifting. As it can be noticed, most of the measures proposed by Situational Crime Prevention are closely related to the elements of the Routine Activity Theory as well For instance, by implementing measures of increasing the effort and reducing anticipated rewards groups of prevention techniques could be linked to actions of making suitable targets mentioned by the Routinne Activity Theory less accessible to determined offenders. Similarly, preventive measures of the increasing the effort and increasing the risk group of situational techniques could be associated with measures of ensuring a capable guardian to suitable targets of the same Routine Activity Theory. However, the Routine Activity Theory has inspired its own crime prevention model, too. In accordance with Felson's view (Felson is the main originator of Routine Activity Theory), (Lilly, Cullen, Ball, 2002, 241) some three crime-reducing strategies have been inspired by the said theory. First are "The Natural Strategies," which deal with the designing the environment, and organizing some inside security routines. Second, are the "Organized Strategies," which 10

11 merely consist in deploying manned security services in the area. And lastly, the Mechanical Strategies are pointing to security equipment (CCTV, electronic access control, burglar alarms etc.) Similar to the Situational Crime Prevention, the Routine Activity crime prevention solutions are evidently aligned with everyday security managers, professional routines. 6. NEW CLASSICIST CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES AND THE THEORETICAL BASE OF PRIVATE SECURITY MANAGEMENT Anyhow, besides their own crime prevention models of great relevance to private security sector, the above mentioned criminological theories have already inspired some further more theoretical concepts of private security management, as well CPTED A prime example of such interference between the above mentioned criminological theories and private security management is the concept of Crime Prevention Trough Environmental Design (CPTED). CPTED is a complex strategy aiming to manipulate the environment in order to influence behavior in a way that is expected to result in a decrease of both criminality and the perceived fear of crime. CPTED related techniques aim to achieve effective natural access control, natural surveillance and territorial reinforcement through the means of architectural design, landscaping, physical security, maintenance, etc. Crowe 2013, Such strategies have much in common with the crime prevention models presented above especially in terms of their propensity to physically strengthen the targets thus less opportunities for would be offenders Ds - 5Ds MODEL The 5 Ds approach to physical securitty is another widely popular concept of private security management that could be associated with crime prevention, risk reduction strategies closely related to situational crime prevention models inspired by new classicist criminological theories. The 5 Ds stands for Deterrence, Detection, Delay, Deny and Defense which are regarded as primal functions that should be performed by an effective deployment of physical security measures. From this perspective, physical security should be not only adequate to the risk exposure of the premises but must be visible enough in order to be perceived by would-be offenders as a factor of high risk thus a discouraging effect against a potential attack. Furthermore, the already in-place physical security should ensure an early detection of the perpetration, therefore, enabling a prompt and efficient preventative intervention. An effective intervention is also enabled by the strength of the physical security who should delay criminals 11

12 in their way to the target. A hardened target either may determine the perpetrators to desist because of increased effort and increased risk of apprehension or should provide the response teams with additional time to effectively intervene. (Garcia, 2008) The denying and defending functions of physical security deployment must be equally capable enough prevent perpetrators to enter the target and to benefit from their crime. Nevertheless, it could be easily noticed that all the five functions associated with physical security are closely correlated with the Situational Crime Prevention techniques of "Increasing Efforts," "Increasing Risks" and "Denying Benefits." 7. CONCLUSION By considering all the above, it could be concluded that criminology and especially the new classicist theories of Rational Choice and Routine Activity and the crime prevention models developed on their concepts and principles should play an important role in the educational and informational background of the security managers and moreover they could inspire more new practical and methodological approaches in designing and implementing effective and efficient security solutions capable to reduce threats and risks faced by domestic households or by the business sector. On the other hand, security practitioners should be aware of some limitations of the new classicist theories and of their crime prevention models, too DISPLACEMENT Unfortunately, a complete eradication of crime opportunities that can last forever and includes the entire world isn t realistically feasible. Therefore the offenders are constantly looking for weaker suitable targets and wait for good opportunities to take advantage of vulnerabilities in securing valuable assets. Therefore some critiques argue that the crime opportunity reducing strategy are not preventing crime but simply displace the phenomenon from some well secured areas to some less protected (usually poor) and vulnerable neighbourhoods NONSENSE SECURITY Nevertheless, the security managers have to be aware that an uncritical or a less diligent approach to the situational crime prevention strategies could lead to some unwanted results. For instance, by ignoring the particular, real level of risk exposure of assets, may lead to expensive security projects featuring some unnecessary nonsense security measures. On the other hand, an improper, careless implementation of situational crime reduction techniques may compromise the expected results in terms of cutting offences. (R. Clarke, 1997) However, in spite of their relative limitations, Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity remain some extremely valuable theoretical resources for all security managers enabling them to 12

13 build a more informed pro-active attitude towards crime and to foster more effective crime and loss preventions strategies. REFERENCES LIST Clarke R. V. (1997), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, Monsey, New York USA: Criminal Justice Press, Second Edition Crowe T. D. (2013), Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, Waltham, Massachusetts USA: Butterworth-Heineman, Third Edition. Felson, M. (2002). Crime and everyday life (Third ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Fischer, R. J., Halibozek, E. P., & Green, G. (2008). Introduction to security (Eight ed.). Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. Garcia, M. L. (2008). The design and evaluation of physical protection systems (Second ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. Lilly R. J., Cullen T. F., Ball A. R. (2002) Criminological Theory, Thousand Oaks- London-New Delhi: Sage Publication, Third edition; Mannheim Hermann, Bernard Thomas J. (2009), Criminology, Encyclopaedia Britannica online. Rock Paul (2002) Sociological Theories of Crime in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Third edition; Vold, B, George; Bernard, J. Thomas; Snipes, B. Jeffrey (2002) Theoretical Criminology, New York Oxford: Oxford University Press, Fifth edition; Scarman Center (2003) MSc in Security & Risk Management, Module 1 13

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