140 American Anthropologist [68, 19661

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140 American Anthropologist [68, 19661 reports that marriage with the sister s daughter is the preferred form among some groupsin South India (1965:218-219) and that marriage with the father s sister

1 140 American Anthropologist [68, reports that marriage with the sister s daughter is the preferred form among some groupsin South India (1965: ) and that marriage with the father s sister s daughter is not entirely approved when she becomes equated with the mother (pp ). This suggests that the ethnography of South India may yield the most fruitful results for further investigation of this topic. Until more information is forthcoming, such a system of prescriptive alliance must remain a hypothetical possibility-yet another feature it shares with patrilateral alliance. P. G. RIVI&RE University of Oxjord REFERENCES CARTER, JEAN formal analysis of preferential marriage with the sister s daughter. Man (ns.) vol. 1, no. 2, in press. KARVI~, IRAWATI 1965 Kinship organisation in India. Bombay. UVI-STRAWS, C Les structures d6mentaires de la parentt?. Paris. RIVI~RE, P. G The social organisation of the Trio Indians of Surinam. Unpublished D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN NAVAHO AND WHITE STUDENTS This study compares the scores of Navaho Indians and White university students on an established measure of 1z achievement in order to verify previous statements that achievement motivation is not emphasized in Navaho culture, Kluckhohn and Leighton (1962 : ), in discussing Navaho values, state that individual success is not such a value. In discussing school grades, they state, Those at the top of the list may find it embarrassing to be placed publicly ahead of their contemporaries, and the list may seem cruel ridicule to those who have lagged behind (p. 315). Leighton and Kluckhohn (1947:172) found that children, when asked, What is the best thing that could happen to you? responded with the following percentages of ambition and achievement statements: Less acculturated Navahos (Navaho Mountain) 7% More acculturated Navahos (Shiprock) 9% Whites 26% The standard definition of achievement employed here is that used by McClelland and Atkinson, and their associates. In their system, achievement is success in competition with some standard of excellence (McClelland et ae : 181). The statements above by Kluckhohn and Leighton would lead one to expect low scores for Navahos on a measure of achievement motivation derived from this definition of achievement.

Method Brief Communications 741 The 38 White students in the study were a random sample from two introductory psychology classes at the University of Kansas in the fall of 1962.

2 Method Brief Communications 741 The 38 White students in the study were a random sample from two introductory psychology classes at the University of Kansas in the fall of They were tested in their regular classroom situation. The Navaho Indians we tested were students at Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Kansas,2 a federal, tuition-free school for Indians specializing in technical training at the high-school and junior-college levels. There were 39 Navaho subjects, 13 females and 26 males, all from the Southwest. Nearly all of them were from the vicinity of the Four Corners area-crown Point and Shiprock, New Mexico, and Fort Defiance, Arizona. They were obtained from the total population of 47 Navahos at the school by calling a meeting of all Navahos. This resulted in the attendance of 41 persons. At the outset of the meeting, the study was explained to the students, and it was made clear that participation was voluntary. Anyone who wanted to leave could do so immediately. No one left at that point, but two persons left right after the administration of the French test (see below) ; their scores were not used, This left 39 Navahos remaining in the study. After the Navahos had been told about the study, they completed the French Test of Insight (French 1958). This is a projective test in which ten simple sentences, rather than pictures, are the stimuli. Sample items and responses are found below under Results and Discussion. The test was scored for n achievement by an expert scorer using the content analysis method described by McClelland et al. (1958). Since this scoring method resulted in many minus scores, all scores for both Navaho and White subjects were transformed for purposes of statistical analysis by adding a constant of 10 to each score. In discussing the scoring of n achievement, McClelland et al. (1958:184) point out that this scoring method should not be used for other cultures without taking appropriate corrective measures. We used it, however-as did Lowell (1950, cited in McClelland 1953: 168)-because we wanted to use the larger American culture, rather than Navaho culture, as the referent in measuring n achievement. After an intervening activity, irrelevant here, an ethnicity index schedule was filled out for each Navaho subject by an interviewer of the same sex. This ethnicity index was designed by the authors to assess the degree of acculturation of each subject; it contained 13 items, including places lived, schooling, languages used in the home, parents occupations, participation in Navaho ceremonials, and life ambition. Items were rated on a scale ranging from -2 to +2. A low score indicates low acculturation. The scores were transformed for purposes of statistical analysis by adding a constant of 5 to each score. Results and Discussion Since the ethnicity index was developed by the authors for this study, some demonstration of its validity is desirable. A psychological anthropologist with

742 American Anthropologist [68, 19661 long experience of Navaho life scored one item of the index for all subjects.

3 742 American Anthropologist [68, long experience of Navaho life scored one item of the index for all subjects.3 This item gives place of birth and early socialization, and was regarded by him as the best single indicator of acculturation on the index. When the independent scoring of this item was correlated with our scoring of the entire index, a phi coefficient of.52 was obtained. This is equivalent to a chi square value of 9.63 (p<.002, 1 dj). Thus we are confident that our scoring of the ethnicity index as a whole shows considerable agreement with a measure of validity established by an area expert. Table 1 shows the means and analysis of variance on the ethnicity measure, by n achievement and sex. This analysis was performed to control for the effects of acculturation on n achievement. The obtained score range was 0 to 19, and it is clear from the ethnicity protocols that this range of scores reflects a wide range of acculturation among the subjects. The two highest scprers, for example, spoke English at home and had fathers who were, respectively, a chemist and a painter; these students wished to live in areas far removed from home upon graduation. The two lowest scorers, on the other hand, spoke only Navaho at home and had fathers who were ranchers; these students wished to return home after attending Haskell. Thus, while it is clear that the Navaho population at Haskell was a selected one, a wide range of acculturation was nevertheless represented. More qualitatively, the interviewers were struck with the acculturation differences in the subjects, whose English language ability, in particular, ranged from that of the typical American teenager on the one hand to near incomprehensibility on the other. Bartlett's test showed that analysis of variance was not inappropriate for the ethnicity data. Because the Ns are not equal, this and the following analy- TABLE 1 TRANSFORMED ETHNICITY SCORES BY n ACHIEVEMENT AND SEX Group High n-ach male High n-ach female Low n-ach male Low n-ach female Mean Source Ach (A) Sex (S) AXS Within df MS' F 1.Of7 <I ,

4 Brief Communications 743 TABLE 2 TRANSFORMED fz ACHIEVEMENT SCORES BY POPULATION AND SEX Group Navaho male Navaho female White male White female ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE I Mean Source sex (S) Population (P) SXP Within df MS ~ F 4.35* 4.10* <1 - *p<.o5. sis of variance used the approximate method for unequal cell frequencies described by Walker and Lev (1953: ). It can be seen that neither the main effect nor the interaction is significant. This means that neither n achievement nor sex differences are related to ethnicity scores among our subjects. Since the degree of acculturation is not related to achievement scores, we may proceed to the analysis of n achievement differences between our samples without concern for this variable. First, however, it may be of interest to cite some examples of the sentences used in the French test and of achievement-related and nonachievementrelated responses to them. The following story scored as showing achievement imagery. It was written in response to the sentence Carol said, I m pretty sure I can do it. She s evasive, not sure but she ll try, she ll keep saying that ti1 she changes to I can do it. She feels accomplishment. The following two stories show the presence and the absence of achievement imagery in responses to the sentence Diane never joins clubs or social groups. Kind that will isolate herself. May have a horror to do so. Perhaps wants to get ahead rather than to go out. I believe she can be a somebody. [Achievement imagery] Diane lacks the interest of social affairs. She would be considered a stoical person. [No achievement imagery] The means and analysis of variance for n achievement are presented in Table 2, by population and sex. Bartlett s test showed that analysis of variance was not inappropriate for these data. It can be seen that both of the main effects in Table 2 are significant, while their interaction is not. This indicates

744 A merican A nt hropologist [68, 19661 for our subjects that males have higher n achievement scores than females, that Navahos have higher scores than Whites, and that this difference is not

5 744 A merican A nt hropologist [68, for our subjects that males have higher n achievement scores than females, that Navahos have higher scores than Whites, and that this difference is not different for the two levels of sex and population. That our Navaho students should obtain higher n achievement scores than our university students is surprising ; it is contrary to the anthropological literature we have cited, and invites speculation. Our hypothesis was based upon ethnographic and other observations on the larger Navaho society. It becomes evident upon further consideration that our Navaho subjects were probably not representative of this larger Navaho population. They represent rather a highly selected population of Navahos, namely, those younger tribal members who attend Haskell Institute, a school strongly committed to the goal of teaching vocations useful in the general American society. It seems possible that this population of Navahos has a much higher level of n achievement than the Navaho population in general, and a level even higher than that of our university student population. Our university students also represent a selected population with respect to the larger American society. The selective factor would appear to be much greater for Indian students at Haskell Institute, however, than for White students at a state university, probably because proceeding to college is increasingly common in general American society. This would appear to be one reasonable explanation for the Navaho students' high achievement scores. ROLAND REBOUSSIN' University of Kansas JOEL W. GOLDSTEIN' Universily of Kansas NOTES 1 This research was completed in part while both authors were supported by Public Health Service fellowships and from the National Institutes of Mental Health. Additional support was provided from a grant by the Kansas City Association of Trusts and Foundations to Dr. James Clifton of the University of Kansas, for whose assistance we are grateful. The assistance of Robert Bechtel with the scoring ia also gratefully acknowledged. * The authors wish to thank Mr. F. E. Stayton, Superintendent, and Mr. Tony Coffin of Haskell for their permission and cooperation, without which this study would not have been possible. * The authors are indebted to Dr. Bert Kaplan for assistance in this matter. Responsibility for any error is borne by us. 4 Now at Beloit College. 6 Now at Carnegie Institute of Technology. REFERENCES CITED FILENCH, ELIZABETH 1958 Development of a measure of complex motivation. In Motives'in fantasy, action, and society. John W. Atkison, ed. Princeton, D. van Nostrand. KLUCKHOHN, CLYDE, AND DOROTHEA LEIGHTON 1962 The Navaho. Rev. ed. Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday. LEIGHTON, DORO~A, AND CLYDE KLUCKHOHN 1947 Children of the people. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.

Brief Communications 745 LOWELL, EDGAR L. 1950.4 methodological study of projectively measured achievement motivation. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Wesleyan University. MCCLELLAND, DAVID C.

6 Brief Communications 745 LOWELL, EDGAR L methodological study of projectively measured achievement motivation. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Wesleyan University. MCCLELLAND, DAVID C The achievement motive. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts. MCCLELLAND, DAVID C., JOHN W.,%TKINSON, RUSSELL A. CLARK, AND EDGAR L. LOWELL scoring manual for the achievement motive. In Motives in fantasy, action, and society. John W..itkinson, ed. Princeton, D. van Nostrand. WALKER, HELEN M., AND JOSEPH LEV 1953 Statistical inference. New York, Holt. MATERIAL CULTURE AND COGNITIO~ Kecent studies (Allport and Pettigrew 1957; Segall, Campbell, and Herskovits 1963 ; etc.) have indicated that the culturally modified environment (e.g., domiciles) may influence certain perceptual habits and cognitive preferences. For example, Segall and his colleagues (1963: 770) interpret particular visual inference habits of Europeans as the result of residence in highly carpentered (or rectangular) urban, European environments. Moreover, Doob (quoted in Allport and Pettigrew 1957: 106) has suggested that among the Zulu-whose material cultural environment is predominantly circular-less acculturated persons prefer circles to squares in designs, as opposed to more acculturated persons, who presumably have been more exposed to rectangular European environments. In an effort to explore these ideas further, I hypothesized that, in general, the shape of a society s cultural art style would be related to the shape of its primary house type. Specifically, it was predicted that in a society where the primary house shape was circular, there would be a preference for or predominance of curved lines in the art style. Conversely, in those societies in which the primary house shape is rectangular, there would be a preference for or predominance of straight lines in the cultural art style. The rationale for this prediction was that an art object would be cognitively preferred if it contained formal characteristics similar to those normally experienced. Me/hod The two variables used in the investigation were: (1) the judgments by Barry (1957) of straight to curved lines in the graphic art styles of 30 societies (these are presented and discussed in another context by Fisher [1961]) ; and (2) the judgments on primary house shape indicated by the ratings of house ground plans in the Ethnographic Atlas (Ethnology 2: ).* The results are contained in Tables 1 and 2 below. All sets of judgments were made by persons unaware of the hypotheses of this study, and it is fair to claim that the results cannot be explained by a judgmental bias of this type. The results in Table 1 indicate that the general hypothesis is supported, but that the specific prediction is disconfirmed and the opposite association supported. In societies where the primary house type is circular, there appears to. be a preference for or predominance of straight lines in art style; and in those

Instrumental activity in achievement motivation1. Department of Child Study, Faculty of Home Economics, Japan Women's University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112

Japanese Psychological Research 1981, Vol.23, No.2, 79-87 Instrumental activity in achievement motivation1 MISAKO MIYAMOTO2 Department of Child Study, Faculty of Home Economics, Japan Women's University,