Prologue/Chapter 1. What is Psychology?

Transcription

1 Prologue/Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods What is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes Behavior observable actions of a person or animal Mind thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences Science an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods A Philosophical Developments Question: How are mind and body related? Socrates( B.C.) and Plato( B.C.) mind and body are separate, knowledge is innate-we are born with it Aristotle (Plato s student b.c.) mind and body are NOT separate and knowledge is NOT preexisting. It grows from experience Since Psychology Arrived René Descartes ( ) Interactive dualism The mind and body interact to produce conscious experience Agreed with Socrates and Plato 1

2 Continued from last slide Francis Bacon( ) one of the founders of modern science, added science to the study of the mind John Locke ( ) agreed with Aristotle and wrote An Essay concerning Human Understanding where he described the brain at birth as a blank slate -tabula rosa Bacon+Locke=empiricism-knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation Philosophical Developments Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences? What are the interactions between genetics and environment? What effect does it have on behavior? Compromise: Nurture works on what nature endows Foundations of Modern Psychology Separated from philosophy in 19th century influences from physiology remain Wilhelm Wundt ( ) Father of Psychology wrote the first psychology textbook applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind first psych experiment structuralism identify atoms of the mind focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes Analyze consciousness into its basic elements and how they are related measured reaction times First school of thought in psychology 2

3 Wilhelm Wundt ( ) Other Pioneers Edward Titchener ( ) Wundt s student (structuralism), professor at Cornell University Brought structuralism to America William James ( ) started psychology at Harvard in 1870s opposed Wundt and Titchener s approach functionalism influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment (focus on purpose rather than its structure) Sigmund Freud ( ) Austrian physician that focused on the role of the unconscious and conflicts in determining how we act psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders E. B. Titchener ( ) 3

4 William James ( ) Perspectives Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena Psychology has multiple perspectives Psychodynamic Behavioral Humanistic Biological Cognitive Cross-Cultural/Social-cultural Evolutionary Psychoanalytic Perspective View of behavior based on experience treating patients Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations 4

5 Sigmund Freud Behavioral Perspective View of behavior based on experience or learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning Other Pioneers John B. Watson ( ) psychologists should study overt behavior (behaviorism) Studied conditioning and generalization B. F. Skinner ( ) American psychologist at Harvard studied learning and effect of reinforcement behaviorism 5

6 John B. Watson ( ) B. F. Skinner ( ) Humanistic Perspective Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers behavior reflects innate actualization focus on conscious forces and self perception more positive view of basic forces than Freud s 6

7 Carl Rogers ( ) Abraham Maslow ( ) Biological Perspective Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior Focus may be at various levels individual neurons areas of the brain specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences Subfields: Neuroscience, behavior genetics Cognitive Perspective How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior? Influences include Piaget studied intellectual development Chomsky studied language Cybernetics science of information processing 7

8 Social-cultural How thinking and behavior vary across situations and cultures. How people in different cultures express anger differently How people behave and thing differently when they are at work vs at home. Evolutionary Perspective Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes Review 8

9 Psychology should study how behavior and mental processes allow organisms to adapt to their environments School/Approach Evolutionary perspective Founder Charles Darwin Psychology should emphasize people s unique potential for psychological growth School/Approach Humanistic Founder Maslow Psychology should only study observable behavior School/Approach Behaviorism Founder Watson/Skinner 9

10 Psychology s Three Main Levels of Analysis 28 Women Pioneers Mary Calkins-studied under James, founded one of first psychological labs in America at Wellesley College, invented widely used technique for studying memory, and became 1 st woman to serve as President of APA Margaret Floy Washburn first woman to receive PhD in Psychology Leta Stretter Hollingworth pioneering work on adolescent development, mental retardation, and gifted children (first to use term gifted to refer to children who scored exceptionally high on IQ tests Describe Explain Predict Control Goals of Psychology behavior and mental processes 10

11 Scientific Method Formulate testable questions Develop hypotheses Design study to collect data Experimental Descriptive Analyze data to arrive at conclusions Use of statistical procedures Use of meta-analysis Report results Publication Replication Theory Tentative explanation for observed findings Results from accumulation of findings of individual studies Tool for explaining observed behavior Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific method. 11

12 Science vs. Common Sense Science helps build explanations that are consistent and predictive rather than conflicting and postdictive (hindsight) Science is based on knowledge of facts developing theories testing hypotheses public and repeatable procedures Research Strategies Descriptive strategies for observing and describing behavior Naturalistic observation Case studies Surveys Correlational methods Experimental strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables Definitions Hypothesis tentative statement about the relationship between variables Variables factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified (independent versus dependent) Operational definition precise description of how the variables will be measured (so well described it can be replicated) 12

13 Descriptive Study Describes a set of facts Does not look for relationships between facts Does not predict what may influence the facts May or may not include numerical data Example: measure the percentage of new students from out-of-state each year since 1980 Naturalistic Observation Researchers directly observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions. In naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally. Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural observation + provides descriptive information + can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later + behavior studies in everyday setting is more natural _ research expectations can distort observation _ presence of researcher may influence results _Hawthorne effect subject does not act naturally when they know they are being observed _ little or no control over conditions Example: Jane Goodall 13

14 Laboratory Observation Observation under more controlled conditions where sophisticated equipment can be used to measure responses Ex: sleep studies Advantages/disadvantages of lab +more control than naturalistic observation _ may not be representative of condition or event _behavior of subjects may be less natural than in naturalistic observation (Hawthorne effect) Case Study Method Highly detailed description of a single individual Generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions 14

15 Adv/disadv. of Case study +source of information for rare or unusual conditions or events + can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later - may not representative of condition or event. - Time consuming - Subject to misinterpretation by researcher Example: Phineas Gage Survey Methods Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report form. Advantages/disadvantages of Survey methods + can provide accurate information about large numbers of people _responses may be inaccurate _ sample may not be representative _interviewer may influence responses _costly and time consuming Example: Kinsey Sex Survey 15

16 Correlational Study Collects a set of facts organized into two or more categories measure parents disciplinary style measure children s behavior Examine the relationship between categories Categories moving in the same direction ( or ) have a positive correlation Categories moving in the opposite direction ( or ) have a negative correlation) Correlation reveals relationships among facts e.g., more democratic parents have children who behave better Advantages and disadvantages correlational method + can assess strength or relationship between variables (the closer to -1 and 1 the stronger the relationship) +provides basis for prediction - Does not demonstrate CAUSE AND EFFECT * Correlational is given on a scale from +1 to -1 Illusory Correlation 16

17 Correlational Study Correlation cannot prove causation Do democratic parents produce better behaved children? Do better behaved children encourage parents to be democratic? May be an unmeasured common factor e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic adults and well-behaved children Coefficient of Correlation Numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables (closer to 1 or -1 the stronger the relationship) Positive correlation two variables vary systematically in the SAME direction Negative correlation two variables vary systematically in OPPOSITE directions Figure 1.3 Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlation Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright 2007 by Worth Publishers 17

18 Experiments Direct way to test a hypothesis about cause-effect between factors Factors are called variables One variable is controlled by the experimenter e.g., democratic vs. authoritarian classroom The other is observed and measured e.g., cooperative behavior among students Experimental Variables Independent variable (IV) the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e. the one you manipulate) hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable Dependent variable (DV) the measured facts hypothesized to be influenced by IV Confounding/Extraneous variable Any variables other than the IV that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study (may be difficult to sort out their specific effects Independent Variable Simplest is experimental vs. control group experimental group receives the treatment in regards to the IV control group does not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group, but all other conditions are the same Placebo group is the group that thinks they are receiving the treatment in regards to the IV, but does not 18

19 Samples and Sampling Population large (potentially infinite) group represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group. Sample selected segment of the population Representative sample closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics Random sample every member of the population being studied should have an equal chance of being selected for the study Experimental Design Random assignment every subject in the study should have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group (or placebo group) Double blind procedure research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. (reduces bias) Randomization helps avoid false results Sources of Bias Expectancy effects change in DV produced by subject s expectancy that change should happen Demand characteristics subtle cues or signals by the researcher that communicate type of responses that are expected. 19

20 Control of Bias Placebo control group exposed to a fake IV (placebo), the effects of which are compared to group receiving the actual IV. Double-blind study technique in which neither the experimenter nor participant is aware of the group to which participant is assigned Limitations Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict laboratory conditions Ethical considerations in creating some more real life situations Ethical Guidelines Informed consent and voluntary participation Students as participants Use of deception Confidentiality of records Information about the study and debriefing 20

21 Evaluating Media Reports Be skeptical of sensationalist claims Goal of shock media is ratings Look for original sources Separate opinion from data Consider methodology and operational definitions Correlation is not causality Skepticism is the rule in science. The Profession of Psychology American Psychological Association has 53 divisions Some represent areas of training and specialization (e.g., developmental, clinical) Some are applied (i.e., teaching in psychology, psychology and the law) 21

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