Introduction to Sport Psychology

Transcription

1 Introduction to Sport Psychology Colm Murphy (MSc) 13 March ColmMurph TOPICS MAXIMISING COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE GETTING THE MOST OUT OF EVERY TRAINING SESSION PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF SPORT INJURY 1

2 MAXIMISING COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE Attention and Concentration Arousal and Performance Competitive anxiety ATTENTION AND CONCENTRATION 2

3 THE SPOTLIGHT METAPHOR Concentration is never really lost but merely directed at the wrong target something that is irrelevant to the task at hand (e.g., the behavior of the crowd) Helpful in persuading sport performers that no matter what happens, they always have considerable control over what they pay attention to in any situation. Specifically, they can change the direction or width of their mental beam. To explain, at any given moment, they can direct their spotlight outward at people or objects in their environment, thereby showing an external focus of attention. For example, when a sprinter listens carefully for the sound of the gun at the start of a race. Alternatively, athletes can choose an internal focus of attention by deliberately concentrating on their own thoughts, feelings, or bodily processes. For example, many elite marathon runners make a deliberate effort to listen to their breathing or to focus on the rhythm of their stride in an effort to counteract feelings of pain or fatigue. NIDEFFERS S ATTENTIONAL CONTROL MODEL (1976a) AWARE Environmental Scanning General External FOCUSED Particular Cue Series of small stimuli Broad Narrow STRATEGIC Tactical Preparation Assessing readiness Assessing fatigue SYSTEMATIC Mental Rehearsal Psychological state Skill Execution Internal 3

4 Table 3.1 Exploring distractions in sport (based on Moran, 2004). The main purpose of this exercise is to find out what the term concentration means to athletes. In addition, it will help to identify various distractions that athletes experience in their sport and will explore how these distractions affect their performance. Here are some questions to ask to elite athletes: What does the term concentration mean to you? On a scale of 0 (meaning not at all important ) to 5 (meaning extremely important ), how important do you think that the skill of concentration is for successful performance in your sport? If you think that concentration is important, do you allocate any time each week in training to developing this skill? If not, why? What distractions tend to upset your concentration before a performance? Describe the situation and the distractions that result from it. What distractions bother you during the event itself? Again, describe the situation and the distraction that results from it. Thinking of a recent competition, give me a specific example of how a distraction changed your focus and/or affected your performance. Tell me what the distraction was, how it occurred, and how you reacted to it. Do you use any specific techniques for dealing with distractions? Please explain and give an example. Learning points This exercise will help you to understand what concentration means to athletes and to explore the practical strategies that athletes use to deal with the distractions that they experience. It will also indicate whether or not athletes devote any time per week to actually improving their focusing skills. CONCENTRATION PRINCIPLES (BASED ON MORAN, 1996, 2004) Athletes have to decide to concentrate it will not happen by chance Athletes can concentrate on only one thought at a time Athletes minds are focused when there is no difference between what they are doing and what they are thinking Athletes lose their concentration when they focus on factors that are outside their control Athletes should focus outwards when they get nervous 4

5 PRACTICAL CONCENTRATION TECHNIQUES 1. Setting performance goals: Focusing on actions not results 2. Using routines 3. Using trigger words 4. Imaging what one wants to do next 5. Physically relaxing and centering one s body 6. Simulation training: Trying a dress rehearsal What exactly can athletes control in competitive sport? How they prepare for a competition. How they perform in it, and. How they react to mistakes and adversity during the event itself. AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE 5

6 Arousal is often linked to anxiety. Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness and apprehension that is associated with the arousal and activation of the nervous system. In general, arousal has two kinds of effects on performance. First, it increases muscle tension and affects co-ordination. Too much tension is detrimental to performance. Second, arousal affects attention. Therefore, attention can become either too narrow with too much arousal, or too broad with too little arousal which makes person to pay too much attention to his/her environment. Theories of Arousal: Drive Reduction Theory Inverted U Theory Multidimensional Anxiety Theory Catastrophe Model Drive Reduction Theory Only happens when skills are well-learned. If the athletic skill is not well-learned, performance will deteriorate as arousal increases. Drive Reduction Theory suggests that novices and less skilled people tend rather not to perform well under pressure. 6

7 INVERTED U FOR AROUSAL (YERKES-DODSON) Sports that incorporate major muscle groups or gross skills such as weightlifting may benefit from having higher levels of arousal. Activities which incorporate finer skills and high coordination such as archery or gymnastics may benefit from lower levels of arousal. MULTI-DIMENSIONAL ANXIETY THEORY Theory distinguishes between somatic and cognitive anxiety: Cognitive anxiety is worrying and negative thoughts. Somatic anxiety reflects physiological elements of the anxiety that develops directly from autonomic (nervous system) arousal. This is perceived as butterflies in the stomach, tense muscles, sweating and nausea. The theory makes two predictions: 1. There is a negative linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance 2. There is an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance Multidimensional Anxiety theory suggests that somatic anxiety should decline once performance begins but cognitive anxiety may remain high if selfconfidence is low. 7

8 CATASTROPHE MODEL 1. Cognitive anxiety (worry) has a positive linear relationship with performance when physiological arousal is low 2. Cognitive anxiety will have a negative relationship with performance when physiological arousal is high; 3. When cognitive anxiety is low, physiological arousal has an inverted U-shaped relationship with performance; 4. When cognitive anxiety is high, increased levels of physiological arousal lead to a catastrophic drop in athletic performance. Furthermore, once this catastrophic drop in performance has occurred, a large reduction in physiological arousal is required to bring performance back on to a higher level, again. COMPETITIVE ANXIETY IN ATHLETES AT LEAST THREE CONCLUSIONS HAVE EMERGED FROM STUDYING ANXIETY IN ATHLETES. FIRST, EVEN THE WORLD S BEST ATHLETES GET NERVOUS BEFORE COMPETITION. SECOND, MANY ATHLETES AND COACHES BELIEVE THAT COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE IS DETERMINED SIGNIFICANTLY BY THE ABILITY TO CONTROL AND CHANNEL ONE S NERVOUS ENERGY EFFECTIVELY. FINALLY, WE HAVE LEARNED THAT ANXIETY TENDS TO AFFECT PEOPLE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS VIA THEIR THINKING, FEELING AND BEHAVIOUR. 8

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10 ANXIETY IN ATHLETES What kind of things might make an athlete anxious before competition? Perceived importance of the competition Predispositions: trait anxiety Attributions/expectations Successful outcome: External/Unstable LUCK Unsuccessful outcome: Internal/Stable LOW SKILL LEVEL Audience expectations Perfectionism Fear of failure Lack of confidence Tools and techniques for combatting competitive anxiety 10

11 1. COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING Think of a situation in your sport or daily life that usually makes you feel anxious. Now, describe this situation by finishing the following sentence; I hate the pressure of Now, think of this pressure situation again. This time, however, I would like you to restructure it in your head so that you think about it differently: I love the challenge of..something specific, relevant and under your control 2. BECOMING MORE AWARE; INTERPRETING THE SIGNS A certain amount of anxiety/nervousness is entirely normal and are often just physical signs of readiness e.g. rapid heart beat, surge of adrenaline etc. 3. PHYSICAL RELAXATION TECHNIQUES PMR Deep breathing Conscious lowering of shoulders 11

12 4. GIVE YOURSELF SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS What do I need to be doing right now? My warmup? Checking my kit? Going to the start line? Supporting teammate? 5. STICK TO YOUR PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES Shifts focus to what you can control i.e. your preparation 6. CONSTRUCTIVE THINKING: ENCOURAGING ONESELF Positive reinforcement/encouragement Guidance what do I need to do next (immediate/shortterm) 12

13 (EFFECTIVE) GOAL SETTING Getting the most out of every session Avoiding passive training GOAL SETTING Why set goals? Focus attention on important elements of skill or task Mobilise our effort Prolong persistence Foster development of new learning strategies (Indirectly) affect anxiety, confidence and satisfaction. 13

14 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GOALS Outcome goals - are goals that aren t under your control. It s the big picture. Performance goals - are what you are trying to achieve. They are the building blocks that help you reach your outcome goal. Process goals - are the small steps you take during each training session. Process and performance goals are preferable as they are Flexible, incremental, adjustable Controllable (Hardy et al., 1996) WHAT TYPE OF GOALS DO YOU HAVE? Think Think of a goal that you have Write Write it down Think about Now, think about what category it might fall into Process Performance Outcome Test it for flexibility and controllability 14

15 S.M.A.R.T. & S.M.A.R.T.E.R. GOALS Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Time based Evaluate Readjust (Drucker, 1954) TEST YOUR GOALS 01 Think of another goal that you have (sport or outside sport) 02 Now test it against the S.M.A.R.T. (E.R.) acronym 03 Does it stand up? If it does, great!! If not, how might you change it? 15

16 POSITIVE VS NEGATIVE (GOAL VALENCE) LONG VS SHORT-TERM (GOAL PROXIMITY) Positive vs Negative The language we use in designing our goals is important. Positive statements are better Focus on what you want to achieve rather than what you want to avoid Long vs short-term Long term goals provide clarity over where you are going Short-term goals are the stepping stones Short-term goals promote incremental motivation and confidence building 16

17 CYCLICAL NATURE OF GOAL SETTING (ORLICK, 2007) Reward goal attainment Reinforcement enhances retention Set goals Post or publish goals to promote social support & accountability Reinforce goal attainment Secure committment Schedule times to monitor progress Feedback critical to success The most overlooked step!! Get feedback & evaluate progress against goals Identify barriers & create action plans Skill & knowledge barriers Plan how to overcome COMMON PROBLEMS Failure to sell the merits of the process Setting goals that are unrealistic and hard to measure. Setting goals only for our weaknesses what about our strengths? Unwillingness to adjust goals (up or down) to maintain optimum difficulty Too much emphasis on outcome goals Forgetting to monitor and evaluate Failure to coordinate goals 17

18 GOAL BARRIERS FOR ATHLETES Lack of time Academic pressure and commitments Work pressure and committments Social or family relationships Stress Fatigue Too many goals or conflicting goals CONCLUSION Goal setting is effective Goals need to be specific They need to be moderately difficult. Research suggests that athletes prefer goals that are 5% - 15% above their current performance capability. (Orlich, T., 1990) You need a mix of long and short term goals Focus on process/performance goals rather than outcome goals You need practice AND competition goals Commit goals to paper (Ink it to think it!!). Training diaries Monitor, re-evaluate and adjust frequently 18

19 COPING WITH INJURY It s not his knee. It appears his feelings are hurt and the team psychologist is rushing onto the field. 19

20 1 I was a creative player, but I got some bad injuries early on and I decided that if this was a jungle we were playing in then it's better to be a lion than a lamb. 2 When you're young, you don't think very far ahead. You just think in terms of the next day, the next week, the next competition. You don't think about injuries that could threaten your long-term health 3 For me, it took five years to understand what professionalism meant. But I'm more settled now. I'm married, life changes, and I've been lucky in managing my injuries. 4 I don't regret the decision to retire. My body was losing its edge. I was taking longer to recover from injuries. You have to get out at some point. 5 Nobody really wants to hear about anybody else's injuries. Or how your back feels. Whose back doesn't hurt? 6 It's a mental battle trying to come back from injuries and I don't feel like having that mental battle with myself JOHN GILES MAURICE GREENE DAVID BECKHAM PEYTON MANNING KATHERINA WITT BRIAN O DRISCOLL 1. John Giles (Soccer), 2. Katherina Witt (figure skating), 3. Brian O Driscoll (Rugby), 4. David Beckham (Soccer), 5. Peyton Manning (NFL), 6. Maurice Greene (Track athlete). PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INJURY Depression Anxiety Isolation Anger Frustration Fear Boredom Helplessness Restlessness Lowered selfefficacy 20

21 BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF POST-SPORT INJURY RESPONSE AND RECOVERY (WIESE-BJORNSTAL, 2010) Injured athlete s thoughts, beliefs and appraisal of his situation Altered mood/emotions Cognition Affect Outcome Behaviour Effects, consequences, & results Influence on actions, effort & activities leads to. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF POST-SPORT INJURY RESPONSE AND RECOVERY (WIESE-BJORNSTAL, 2010) 21

22 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IMPACTING THE REHABILITATION PROCESS personality traits, athletic identity, coping with pain, rehabilitation beliefs, motivation and social support (Masten, R., et al., 2014) Self-perceptions after injury, strategies for coping with injury, emotional reactions to injury, adherence to rehabilitation, psychological factors affecting rehabilitation outcomes, social support in rehabilitation, and patient-practitioner interactions. (Brewer, B.W., 2001). ATHLETIC IDENTITY Athletes recovering from ACL repair showed a significant decrease in athletic identity across a 24 month period (especially 6-12 months post-surgery). The decrease was most significant among those whose rehab progress was slowest. It is suggested that some of the participants initiated a self-protective mechanism to dissociate themselves from their sporting persona and thus protect their selfesteem (Brewer et al., 2010) COPING STRATEGIES Emotion focussed vs problem focussed (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) Emotion focussed: Problem focussed: Strategies: Learn about the injury Take responsibility for your recovery Stay positive Avoidance, distancing, selective attention Defining problem, generating solutions, weighing alternatives, acting Aggressive engagement with rehab Building strength Distracting oneself (Frontera, W., 2008) 22

23 MOTIVATION TCM motivation extent to which motivation in one context is transferred into another e.g. motivation for sport/exercise into motivation to rehabilitate/recover (Hagger, M., 2014) Athletes with higher autonomous motivation in sport may be more likely to be autonomously motivated in their rehabilitation when injured. (Chan et al., 2011) SOCIAL SUPPORT (STRESS BUFFERING HYPOTHESIS CASSEL & COBB) Social support comes from a variety of sources, family, teammates, coach, physio, trainer etc. Support requirement can be different pre and post injury with greater dependence on coaches, physicians and athletic trainers post injury (Yang et al., 2010) There is a positive relationship between social support and rehabilitation outcomes (Chronister et al., 2008) EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO INJURY & REHAB Athlete appraisal of injury = cognition -> affect -> behaviour At Onset: angry, depressed, down, afraid, confused, frustrated, and worried 1 week post-injury: Frustration -> acceptance -> positive outlook -> diversion of energy into other activities 3 weeks post-injury: relief (for some), frustration, fear (loss of fitness or place on team). (Tracey, 2003) 23

24 PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS IN REHABILITATION Modelling (observational learning) Motivation Goal-setting Relaxation Imagery EFFECTIVENESS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS IN REHABILITATION Use of modelling found to improve early stage walking & exercise selfefficacy along with improved functional outcomes after ACL reconstruction (Maddison, R., Prapavessis, H., & Clatworthy, M., 2006) In rehabilitation programmes, autonomous motivation (Chan, D. K. C., & Hagger, M. S., 2012) and goal-setting (Coppack, R. J., Kristensen, J., & Karageorghis, C. I., 2012) were found to positively influence persistence and adherence respectively (in rehabilitation programmes). Research on relaxation and imagery as tools within a rehabilitation programme is inconclusive, with some studies using both techniques in combination (Cupal, D. D., & Brewer, B. W., 2001) reporting positive results while studies using imagery alone (Christakou, A., Zervas, Y., & Lavallee, D., 2007) demonstrated only partial success. 24

25 PREVALENCE OF USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS IN REHABILITATION PROGRAMMES Study of athletes use of psychosocial strategies during sports injury rehab, discovered approximately 27% used psychosocial strategies, with goal setting, positive self talk and imagery, the most commonly used (Clement, D. et al., 2012). More than 70% indicated that these strategies helped them recover more quickly What percentage were taught these skills by a sport psychology professional? Taught by Percentage Sports Medicine professional 27% Coach 15% Family 7.5% Self-taught 8% Sport Psychology professional 2.9% PSYCHOLOGY OF COMPLIANCE/ADHERENCE Physical, emotional, social, environmental and psychological elements A study of rehabilitation compliance in an athletic training environment concluded that controlling pain and providing emotional support are positively associated with sport rehabilitation adherence. (Byerly, et al., 1994) Self-motivation was significant predictor of home exercise completion; athletic identity and psychological distress were significant predictors of knee laxity; and attendance at rehabilitation sessions and home cryotherapy completion were significant predictors of functional ability. (Brewer et al., 2000) Levy et al., 2007 in a longitudinal study concluded that in the initial phase, goal orientation, attitudes and perceived severity were found to predict rehabilitation intention. Intentions were also found to mediate the relationship between the aforementioned variables and clinic rehabilitation. Self-efficacy and self-motivation were predictors of clinic rehabilitation and attendance but not home rehabilitation. During the maintenance phase of rehabilitation coping ability and social support were predictors regarding all three measures of adherence. 25

26 WHERE TO NEXT? EDUCATION, EDUCATION, EDUCATION.. & RESEARCH Education of the athlete(s) Education of other professionals involved in the athlete s welfare e.g. physio, doctor, S & C coach etc. differences in the level of acceptance among health care professionals. (Arvinen- Barrow, M. et al. 2010, and Francis, S. R. et al, 2000) Systematic review (Sports Psych Ed. for SIRPS s) contains recommendations on content and mode of delivery Content: Understanding the Psychological impact of injury Interventions and psychological skills/techniques Referral & Professional boundaries Mode of delivery: Integration into Undergrad and PostGrad programmes Short duration workshops/seminars for qualified practitioners Education of athlete s support network e.g. family, friends (in addition to the professionals). Collaborative research between rehabilitation professionals and sport psychologists MISCELLANEOUS ROUTINES TRAINING DIARIES MANAGING THE NEGATIVE THOUGHTS THAT SET IN PRE- RACE OR DURING THE RACE GETTING THE MOST OUT OF YOURSELF GETTING THE MOST OUT OF BEING A CLUB MEMBER Volunteering/participation Club/Team identity Club community Networking 26

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