A consideration of research concepts (1200 words).

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1 A consideration of research concepts (1200 words). In order to find out anything interesting through research, it s necessary to push boundaries a bit and take some risks. Ethics considerations can stifle and limit opportunities to do anything interesting. [Post 1] Ethical considerations are the underpinning principals of research that form methods, procedures, goals, perspective/analysis and maintain the rights of participants (Orb, Eisenhauer & Wynaden, 2001). Ethics aim to promote truth in knowledge, fairness, accountability and welfare (Resnik, 2015). Research can sometimes be described as a double-edged sword in which outcomes can propose significant human benefit yet also establish ethical dilemmas (Miller, 1998 & Renzetti & Lee, 1993). In reference to the discussion title, whilst it could be argued that ethical considerations can stifle research there are numerous studies that have taken place that could be deemed as unethical yet have uncovered key theories and concepts such as Milgram s (1963) study of Destructive Obedience in which participants were deceived into administering electric shocks to another individual. This experiment was centred around the deception of the participant therefore was not ethical due to the disregard for participant disclosure. However, despite this the findings of this experiment have been key in understanding Human Moral and Social Influence. Similarly, Zimbardo s (2017) Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971, whilst undoubtedly breaking ethical requirements of upholding human rights and welfare, lead to further discovery of Conformity and Social Influence Theory. In conclusion, whilst ethics undeniably are situated around upholding participant welfare, accountability and truth, there are examples of risky experiments that have pushed the boundaries of ethics yet discovered key additions to Social and Educational Theories. Word Count: 229 References Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, p , Available at: (Accessed: ) 1

2 Miller, L. J. (1998) Publishing Controversial Research, Science, 282 (5391), p.1045, dio: /science Orb, A., Eisenhauer, L. & Wynaden, D. (2001) Ethics in Qualitative Research, Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33 (1), p.93-96, dio: /j x Renzetti, C.M & Lee, R.M (1993) Researching Sensitive Topics. Newbury Park: SAGE Publications. Resnik, D.B. (2015) What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important?. Available at: (Accessed: ) Zimbardo, P. (2017) On the Ethics of Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment', in Pimple, K. (ed.). Research Ethics. Abingdon-on- Thames: Routledge [Post 2] As highlighted in the response above ethics play a key role in the methodology of research and can have the potential to stifle studies (Masters, 2018); however, there is another side to this debate that merits consideration. As mentioned previously unethical studies have unearthed key findings in the domain of Human Moral and Social Influence, however there have also been instances where unethical studies have had negative, and potentially damaging, effects on the participants. An example of this can be seen in the Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner, 1920) in which a child was conditioned to be afraid of a rat in an endeavour to further understand Classical Conditioning. This highly controversial experiment was deemed as unethical by many due to is lack of safeguarding and welfare considerations (Samelson, 1980 & Digdon, Powell & Harris, 2014) which are key underpinnings of ethics (Resnik, 2015) and for the future impact this had upon baby Albert, who s fear of rats subsequently generalized to other furry objects (Beck, Levinson & Irons, 2009) therefore potentially negatively impacting upon his quality of life. Despite the potential this experiment held for understanding human behaviour many would argue that there needed to have been more ethical consideration to protect the rights of baby Albert and his wellbeing (Beck, Levinson & Irons, 2009), and that the scientific gain should not have outweighed the respect for Human Rights. Word Count: 230 References 2

3 Beck, H. P., Levinson, S., & Irons, G. (2009). Finding little Albert: A journey to John B. Watson s infant laboratory. American Psychologist, 64(7), , dio: Digdon, N., Powell, R.A. & Harris, B. (2014) Little Albert s alleged neurological impairment: Watson, Rayner, and historical revision, History of Psychology, 17 (4), p Available at: (Accessed: ) Masters, C. (2018) In order to find out anything interesting through research, it s necessary to push boundaries a bit and take some risks. Ethics considerations can stifle and limit opportunities to do anything interesting ES5001 Introduction to Researching Education (SEM2-2017/18): Assessment Discussion group C. 04 March. Available at: (Accessed: ) Resnik, D.B. (2015) What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important?. Available at: (Accessed: ) Samelson, F. (1980). J. B. Watson's Little Albert, Cyril Burt's twins, and the need for a critical science. American Psychologist, 35(7), Dio: Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), p Available at: (Accessed: ) Zimbardo, P. (2017) On the Ethics of Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment', in Pimple, K. (ed.). Research Ethics. Abingdon-on- Thames: Routledge Can the search for improvements to educational practice be left to teachers doing action research on themselves? Action Research (AR) is a wide and diverse strand of research that adopts an interpretivist approach (Brydon-Miller, Greenwood & Maguire, 2003) and entails a practical evaluation of professional practice (Elliot, 1991 in Burton, Brundrett & Jones, 2008 & McNiff, 2017). AR has underpinnings of professional inquiry in which practitioners reflect on their experiences (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988 in Burton, Brundrett & Jones, 2008; Kaur, 2012) to find solutions to problems or to develop practice 3

4 through evaluation in relation to social/professional situations (Denscombe, 2002 in Bell, 2005; McAteer, 2013 & Corey, 2014). Responding to the proposed discussion, it can be argued that AR should not be the sole contributor to improvements of educational practice as firstly a weakness of AR is the localism it holds to the study; which can result in findings failing to influence beyond their local context, meaning they can not be implemented on a societal-level (Brydon-Miller, Greenwood & Maguire, 2003). Secondly, Grundy (1994) proposed that the development of quality education should be a community responsibility and approach as opposed to solely the work of teachers as this does not always equate to a collective educational approach due to the personal element of the research. Word Count: 196 References Bell, J. (2005) Doing your Research Project. Maidenhead: OUP Brydon-Miller, M., Greenwood, D. & Maguire, P. (2003) Why action research?, Action Research, 1 (1), p.9-28, Available at: (Accessed: ) Burton N, Brundrett, M. & Jones, M. (2008) Doing your Education Research Project. London: Sage Corey, S.M. (2014) Action Research in Education, The Journal of Educational Research, 47 (5), p , Available at: (Accessed: ) Grundy, S. (1994) Action research at the school level: possibilities and problems, Educational Action Research, 2 (1), p.23-37, Available at: (Accessed: ) Kaur, S. (2012) Action Research in Education, International Journal of Research in Education Methodology, 3 (2), Available at: (Accessed: ) McAteer, M. (2013) Action Research in Education. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. 4

5 McNiff, J. (2017) Action Research: All you need to know. London: Sage The interpretive paradigm is too vague and anecdotal to be valued as real research. For research to be rigorous, it is necessary to adopt a more scientific and positivist approach - What do you think? As highlighted by James (2018) and Masters (2018) the Positivist approach to research can provide a more systematic approach and more useful data due to the nature of it leading to generalization and transferability to other research. However, whilst the Positivist approach has made valuable contributions to research across many subjects and formulated various methods/procedures (Ashby, 1964) the paradigm still has limitations in the field of Educational research. It can be argued for various reasons that Positivist approaches to finding truths of the natural world are not transferable to understanding some Social concepts (Scotland, 2012). For example, Positivism seeks to simplify, isolate and regulate variables in order to reach outcomes that can be generalized. This control of variables can be challenging in Educational Research due to fluctuating factors of individuals such as: day-to-day events, illness or mood swings, changing attitudes/enthusiasm of participants (Shank & Brown, 2007), and hidden variables that only become known when their effects become evident (House, 1991). In short, human behaviour can not ever be fully regulated or completely explained (Berliner, 2002) In conclusion, whilst criticisms of the Interpretivist paradigm are that its can be vague and anecdotal, it can be argued that in comparison with the Positivist approach Interpretivism is more appropriate for use in Educational Research. Word Count: 211 References Ashby, R. W. (1964). Logical positivism. In O Connor, D. J. (Ed), A critical history of western philosophy. New York: The Free Press Berliner, D. C. (2002). Educational research: The hardest science of all. Educational Researcher, 31 (8), p James, H. (2018) The interpretive paradigm is too vague and anecdotal to be valued as real research. For research to be rigorous, it is necessary to adopt a more scientific and positivist approach - What do you think? ES5001 Introduction to Researching Education (SEM2-2017/18): 5

6 Assessment Discussion group C. 20 March. Available at: (Accessed: ) House, E. (1991). Realism in research, Educational Researcher, 20 (6), p.2-25 Masters, C. (2018) The interpretive paradigm is too vague and anecdotal to be valued as real research. For research to be rigorous, it is necessary to adopt a more scientific and positivist approach - What do you think? ES5001 Introduction to Researching Education (SEM2-2017/18): Assessment Discussion group C. 21 March. Available at: (Accessed: ) Scotland, J. (2012) Exploring the Philosophical Underpinnings of Research: Relating Ontology and Epistemology to the Methodology and Methods of the Scientific, Interpretive, and Critical Research Paradigms, English Language Teaching, 5 (9), p.9-16 Shank, G. & Brown, L. (2007). Exploring educational research literacy. New York: Routledge. In education research, there will always be a compromise between validity and reliability. Reliability and Validity are key concepts in the field of research and can often impact upon how research is viewed and evaluated amongst the subject community. Reliability can be defined as the consistency and stability of measures over time, therefore indicating an accurate representation of the subject under study. Also embodied within reliability is the notion of repeatability of results (Kirk and Miller, 1986; Charles, 1995; Joppe, 2000 cited in Golafshani, 2003). Charles (1995) suggests that reliability can be obtained through a test-retest method to examine the stability of results. On the other hand, Validity can be defined as a culmination of empirical concepts such as evidence, universal truths, objectivity, realisms, reason, data and deduction (Winter, 2000). Similarly, Validity can be seen as a determinant of whether research accurately measures its intended hypothesis/notion, and how truthful results actually are (Wainer and Braun, 1998; Joppe, 2000 cited in Golafshani, 2003) 6

7 It can be argued that to obtain reliable results the validity of the study may be compromised due to the use of a test-retest method as this approach can sensitize participants to the topic, in turn potentially influences their responses. This can lead to the instruments/methods of data collection becoming unreliable (Crocker and Algina (1986; Joppe, 2000 cited in Golafshani, 2003; Babbie, 2010). Building on this, Golafshani (2003) suggests that whilst researchers can prove the stability of their research instrument, therefore also the reliability of the study, there is challenge in determining the validity of instruments/methods. As argued above, research that is Reliable can compromise on its Validity; however, the definitions of these concepts stem from the Positivist paradigm, therefore the consideration of these can differ in qualitative research. In short, the Reliability and Validity of a study in differing paradigms should be determined through the differing approaches terminology (Healy and Perry, 2000). For example, whilst key terms within the Positivist paradigm include Reliability and Validity, the Interpretivist approach is more likely to draw upon concepts such as Credibility, Neutrality or Confirmability, Consistency or Dependability and Applicability or Transferability are to be the essential criteria for quality (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This therefore means that the differing terminology/concepts can change the evaluations of studies. Word Count: 363 References Babbie, E. R. (2010) The Practice of Social Research California: Wadsworth Publishing Charles, C. M. (1995). Introduction to educational research (2nd ed.). San Diego: Longman Publishers Crocker, L. & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Toronto: Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc. Golafshani, N. (2003) Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research, the Qualitative Report, 8 (4), p Kirk, J. & Miller, M. L. (1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Wainer, H. & Braun, H. I. (1988). Test validity. London: Routledge. Winter, G. (2000). A comparative discussion of the notion of validity in qualitative and quantitative research, The Qualitative Report, 4 (3). 7

8 We see what we want to see. Discuss the issue of impartiality when doing observations Investigating social sciences can present serious challenges for researchers, particularly those working within the qualitative paradigm (Jorgensen, 2015). As highlighted by Pocklington (2018), impartiality can be considered to be a common issue within observational research - as this often interpretivist method of data collection is less structured and more exploratory (Burke, 1997; Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2011). This means research bias can occur from predispositions, selective observation, a lack of critical self-reflection and assumed intersubjectivity (Grinnel, 1992; Burke, 1997; Pocklington, 2018). The implications of a lack of impartiality can include research results not being accurate representations of the participants/events and ultimately the data being less valid (Burke, 1997). However, it is suggested that impartiality, or research bias, can be managed through various actions. For example, through ensuring reflexivity by means of critical acknowledgment and self-reflection of potential biases or predispositions, observers can endeavour to manage their biases (Burke, 1997). This is furthered by Peshkin (1988) and Bogdan and Biklen (2006) who suggest that through actively seeking out ones subjectivity during the research process, researchers can be aware of how this can contribute to their data and outcomes. Word Count: 187 References: Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S.K. (2006) Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theories and Methods. Cambridge: Pearson. Burke, R.J. (1997) Examining the validity structure of qualitative research, Education, 118 (2), p.282 Fraenkel, J.R., Wallen, N.E. & Hyun, H.H. (2011) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Education Grinnel, F. (1992) The Scientific Attitude. New York: Guildford Press. Jorgensen, D.J. (2015) Participant Observation, in Scott, R.A and Kosslyn, S.M. (eds.) In Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Available at: (Accessed: ) Peshkin, A. (1988) In Search of Subjectivity One's Own, Educational Researcher, 17 (7), p

9 Pocklington, K. (2018). 'We see what we want to see. Discuss the issue of impartiality when doing observations' ES5001 Introduction to Researching Education (SEM2-2017/18): Assessment Discussion group C. 22 April. Available at: (Accessed: ) Surveys and questionnaires enable the researcher to gather factual data from a wide audience, which provides a true reflection of reality. Discuss [Post 1] The capacity of surveys has expanded massively, from mail-based surveys, due to increased use of internet and computer mediums of communication. As the medium of surveys has developed so has the potential for increased participation of a wider range of individuals (Wright, 2017). Through being able to access a wider audience comprised of individuals from differing backgrounds and geographical locations surveys can gather a wider and richer variety of data (Lefever, Dal & Matthíasdóttir, 2006; Denscombe, 2014; Wright, 2017). However, despite the potential for a wider participation a broader audience of surveys does not necessarily equal a true reflection of reality as researchers may encounter sampling issues. For example, researchers may only know the geographical location of participants, yet not know the characteristics of participants from surveys gathered online, and so they might not be able to ensure effective sampling (Stanton, 1998; Dillman, 2000; Van Selm & Jankowski, 2006). Furthermore, the nature of surveys can often lead to data collection forfeiting depth for breadth of responses; meaning an accurate sampling frame may not be obtained, therefore the representation of the population may not be correct (Desncombe, 2014). In short, whilst surveys can offer a tool for mass data collection, the ensuing sampling issues may compromise the reliability of the results (Roberts, Priest & Traynor). Word Count: 214 References: Denscombe, M. (2014) The Good Research Guide: For Small-scale Social Research Projects. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education Dillman, D.A. (2000). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method. New York: John Wiley & Sons Lefever, S., Dal, M. & Matthíasdóttir, A. (2006) Online data collection in academic research: advantages and limitations, British Journal of Educational Technology, 38 (4), p

10 Roberts, P., Priest, H. & Traynor, M. (2006) Reliability and validity in research, Nursing Standard, 20 (44), p Stanton, J.M. (1998). An empirical assessment of data collection using the Internet, Personnel Psychology, 51 (3), p Van Selm,. M. & Jankowski, N.W. (2006) Conducting Online Surveys, Quality and Quantity, 40 (3), p Wright, K.B. (2017) Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey Services, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (3) [Post 2] On the other hand, it can be argued that surveys do in fact offer a true reflection of reality due to their internal and external validity obtained from sampling methods. Mathers, Fox and Hunn (2009) note that as surveys analyse data from a specific sample of participants, with desired characteristics, this can be generalized to the wider population with these qualities. Furthermore, Kelley, Clark and Brown et al define surveys as an analysis of a large selection of a sample of a predetermined population. Therefore, despite Pocklington s (2018) suggestion of issues with validity, due to unclear knowledge of the population, it could be argued that the pre-determined nature of surveys allows for researchers to regulate the participants of the survey through non-probability sampling (Mathers, Fox & Hunn, 2009). Meaning, the data collected from questionnaires can produce a true reflection of the desired population. Word Count: 143 References: Kelley, K., Clark, B., Brown, V. & Sitzia, J. (2003) Good practice in the conduct and reporting of survey research, International Journal for Quality in Healthcare, 15 (3), p Mathers, N., Fox, N. & Hunn, A. (2009) Surveys and Questionnaires. Available at: (Accessed: ) Pocklington, K. (2018) Surveys and questionnaires enable the researcher to gather factual data from a wide audience, which provides a true reflection of reality. Discuss ES5001 Introduction to 10

11 Researching Education (SEM2-2017/18): Assessment Discussion group C. Available at: (Accessed: ). You are interested in exploring the impact of compulsory daily physical activity during the school day on obesity levels in secondary schools. How might you go about researching this? Denner, Marsh and Campe (2017) suggest that synthesis of research-based findings is essential in endeavouring to establish new knowledge in any field; therefore, a starting point prior to conducting this research could be carrying out wider-reading around school-based physical activity and obesity in young-people. From wider-reading, aims and questions for the research can be decided, following this a paradigm will need to be selected in which to research (Verma & Mallick, 1999). An area within this topic that could be explored is the correlation between interaction with physical activity and children s BMI, to establish if daily physical activity impacts children s weight this would likely be explored in the quantitative paradigm as it concerns more numerical data (Young & Atkinson, 2012). In addition to this it is likely that the study will need to be longitudinal to ensure results are reliable, cohesive and can accurately advance knowledge (Farrington, 1991). As researching obesity in children is a potentially sensitive topic researchers will need to ensure that ethical standards are all upheld. Furthermore, data collections tools will need to be designed with the sensitive nature of the subject in mind (Miller, 2012). Word Count: 189 References: Denner, J., Marsh, E. & Campe, S. (2017) Approaches to Reviewing Research in Education, in Wyse, D., Selwyn, N. & Smith, E. (eds.) The BERA/SAGE Handbook of Educational Research. London: SAGE Publications Farrington, D.P. (1991) Longitudinal Research Strategies: Advantages, Problems, and Prospects, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30 (3), p Miller, T. (2012) Ethics in Qualitative Research. London: SAGE Publications 11

12 Verma, C.K. & Mallick, K. (1999) Researching Education: perspectives and Techniques. London: Falmer Press Young, K. & Atkinson, M (2012) Qualitative Research on Sport and Physical Culture. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd Development of thoughts throughout the module (200 words) Initially entering this module, I had limited experience with the concepts of research and the vocabulary/terminology used in this area. My preconceptions of research were that it entailed rigorous scientific examinations which were then formulated into various graphs and charts before a conclusion was drawn. I can now see that what I thought research was aligns with the Positivist paradigm (Somekh & Lewin, 2004; Antwi & Hamza, 2015) and at this point I hadn t yet developed an awareness of the diversity of research and the approaches to it. Upon completing this module, I have broadened my knowledge on many aspects of research including: ontology/epistemology, ethics and the typologies of data collection tools. However, most potent for me is my furthered understanding of the Positivist Paradigm, the methodology this entails, and my discovery of the Interpretivist approach. Upon further understanding of my epistemology, I have developed an appreciation of the arguably more abstract and subjective approach adopted in Qualitative studies the paradigm which I now believe I am most comfortable in due to its underpinnings of understanding human experience through inferences of events, as opposed to seeking patterns to test (Aikenhead, 1997). Consequently, it is the Interpretivist approach that I now plan on adopting in my own research for my Dissertation in the near future. Word Count: 214 References: Aikenhead, G.S. (1997) A Framework for Reflecting on Assessment and Evaluation (Headliner, Symposium 4: Assessment Strategies), Globalization of Science Education: International Conference on Science Education, May, p Antwi, S.K. & Hamza, K. (2015) Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigms in Business Research: A Philosophical Reflection, European Journal of Business and Management, 7 (3), p

13 Somekh, B. & Lewin, C. (2004) Research Methods in the Social Sciences. London: SAGE Publications. p