Module 3 - Scientific Method

Transcription

1 Module 3 - Scientific Method Distinguishing between basic and applied research. Identifying characteristics of a hypothesis, and distinguishing its conceptual variables from operational definitions used in research study. Describing the 5 steps of the scientific method, and identifying examples of each set. Distinguishing between basic and applied research As well as psychologists, philosophers, religious leaders and politicians among other, also strive to provide explanations for human behaviour. Psychologists believe that research is the best tool for understanding human beings and their relationships with others. Rather than accepting philosophical claims, a psychologist would collect data to empirically test whether or not people are actively able to control their behaviour. An 'empirical study' is results of verifiable evidence from a systematic collection and analysis of data that has been objectively observed, measured and undergone experimentation. Some psychological research is 'basic research'. Basic research answers fundamental questions about behaviour. For instance, bio psychologists study how nerves conduct impulses from receptors in the skin to the brain, and cognitive psychologists investigate how different types of study influence memory. This research is carried out to gain a better knowledge of how processes occur. Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems. For example, applied research has been used to study effective methods of reducing depression, advertising to reduce drug and alcohol abuse, keys to managerial success, and indicators of effective government programs. Basic research and applied research inform each other and help to advance science. For instance, although researching memory methods is basic research, the results could potentially be used to teach children to read. One goal of research is to organise information into meaningful statements that can be used in many situations. A 'theory' is an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of enquiry. Good theories have four important characteristics.

2 A good theory is: - General, meaning it summarises different outcomes. - Parsimonious, meaning it provides the simplest possible account of the outcomes. - Provides ideas for future research - Falsifiable, meaning that the variables of interest can be adequately measured and the relationships between variables that are predicted by the theory can be shown, through research, to be correct. No single theory is able to account for all behaviour in all cases. Rather they are limited in making accurate predictions in some situations or for some people. As a result there is a constant exchange between theory and data. Existing theories are modified on the basis of collected data, and the new modified theories then make new predictions that are tested by new data, and so forth. When a better theory is found it will replace the old one. When psychologists have a question they want to research, it usually comes from a theory based on others research reported in scientific journals. The question must first be stated in a 'research hypothesis' which is a precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory. A research hypothesis is a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables, where a 'variable' is any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different time or places. 'Conceptual variables' are abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses. The first step in testing a research hypothesis involves turning the conceptual variables into 'measured variables', which are variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variable. For instance, "Participating in psychotherapy" as a conceptual variable, could be represented as "number of psychotherapy hours the patient has accrued." as a measured variable. Psychologists often use the term 'operational definition' to refer to a precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measure of variable.more specific definitions mean there is less danger that collected data will be misunderstood. Specific definitions also mean that the research can be replicated. Example: Conceptual variable - Aggression Operational definition - Number of presses of a button that administers shock to another student; number of seconds taken to honk the horn at the car ahead when stop light turns green. Question raised by research -> Uses conceptual variable, which is explained more by the Operational definition. Theory = Question raised by research or an observation. A psychologist then formulates a hypothesis.

3 Hypothesis = a relationship between two or more variables. Conceptual variable = abstract ideas of variables. Adding a quantifiable and measurable explanation to a conceptual variable, makes it a measured variable. The explanation is the operational definition. The relationship between two or more measured variables is a hypothesis. All scientists are engaged in the basic processes of collecting data, and drawing conclusions. The methods used have developed over many years and provide a common framework for developing, organising and sharing information. The 'Scientific method' is the set of assumptions, rules and procedures scientists use to conduct research. Scientific method demands that procedures used are objective, or free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientists. The scientific method rules increase objectivity by placing data under the scrutiny of other scientists and the public at large. Using the correct methodology ensures that other scientists know how the data was collected analysed. This means they do not have to rely on any individual interpretation, and may draw their own conclusions. There is a five step process of scientific research in psychology: 1. Formulate a research question and state a hypothesis 2. Conduct a study to answer it 3. Analyse the data 4. Draw conclusions 5. Publish results This process is a cycle, new research leads to new conclusions, which leads to new research, and so on. Conducting ethical research Research in psychology may cause some stress, harm, or inconvenience for the participants. Psychologists may induce stress, anxiety, or negative moods in participants, expose them to weak electric shocks, or convince them to behave in ways that violate their moral standards. Researchers sometimes also use animals in their research, potentially harming them in the process. Decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes and standards developed by scientific organisations, such as the American Psychological Association, and the federal government, like the US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). What is ethical is determined by the current state of thinking within society. The DHHS requires that all universities

4 receiving funding set up an 'Institutional Review Board' (IRB), to determine whether proposed research meets department regulations. The IRB is a committee of at least five members whose goal it is to determine the cost-benefit ratio of research conducted within an institution. The IRB must approve the research before it can begin. The committee may suggest modifications, or even inform the researchers that the proposed research violates DHHS guidelines and cannot be conducted. Characteristics of Ethical Research Using Human Participants - Trust and positive rapport are created between the researcher and the participant. - The rights of both the experimenter and the participant are considered, and the relationship between them is mutually beneficial. - The experimenter treats the participant with concern and respect, and attempts to make the research experience a pleasant and informative one. - Before research begins, the participant is given all information relevant to their decision to participate, including any possibilities of physical danger or psychological stress. - The participant is given a chance to have questions about the procedure answered, thus guaranteeing their free choice about participating. - After the experiment is over, any deception that has been used is made public, and the necessity for it is explained. - The experimenter carefully debriefs the participant, explaining the underlying research hypothesis and the purpose of the experimental procedure in detail, and answering any questions. - The experimenter provides information about how they can be contacted and offers to provide information about results if the participant wants it. The most direct concern of the scientist is to prevent harm to research participants. Studies such as Milgrams 'Stanford Prison Experiment' are no longer conducted as the scientific community is now much more sensitised to the potential of procedures to create emotional discomfort or harm. Another goal of ethical research is to guarantee participants have 'free choice' about participating. Some psychology students may be required to participate in studies, but they are always given the option to choose a different study. Once an experiment begins, the research participant is always free to leave if they so wish. Researchers must protect the 'privacy' of the participants. In some cases data can be kept anonymous, though sometimes this is not possible, as the researcher needs to keep track of who contributed the data. One way around this is to give each participant a unique ID number. The most widespread concern in research is the extent to which researchers employ deception. 'Deception' occurs whenever participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating. Deception may occur, for instance, when a participant is

5 told the study is about learning, when in fact it is about obedience to authority. Other times deception is more passive, when participants are not told about the hypothesis being studied, or the data being collected. Some researchers argue that deception should never be used as participants may enter the study expecting to be deceived. Others defend deception as a necessity in order to have subjects act naturally. They argue that topics such as altruism, aggression, obedience and stereotyping would never get studied efficiently without using deception, because prior knowledge might provoke participants to change their behaviour and not act naturally. The APA allow researchers to use deception, but the ethics code requires they explicitly consider how the research could be conducted without it. An important tool to ensure that research is ethical is a written consent form. 'Informed consent', given before research begins, is designed to explain the research procedures and inform the participant of their rights. Participating in research has the potential for producing long term changes in the participants. Therefore all participants should be fully debriefed immediately after participation. The 'debriefing' is a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful after effects of participation. Research with Animals Some research cannot be conducted with humans, so animals are also used in research. Mostly rats, mice and birds are used for this. APA Guidelines on humane care and use of animals in research - Psychologists acquire, care for, and dispose of animals in compliance with current federal, state and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards. - Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment. - Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role. - Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimise the discomfort, infection, illness and pain of animal subjects. - Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress or privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its potential scientific, educational, or applied value.

6 - Psychologists perform medical procedures under appropriate anaesthesia and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimise pain during and after surgery. - When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimise pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. Many people believe that animals should be experimented on. Most scientists reject this view, arguing that such views ignore potential benefits that researching on animals can bring. For instance, drugs may first be tested on animals, and surgery procedures could be tested that could go on to save human lives.