Perfectionism in Sport and Dance: Introduction to the Special Issue. Andrew P. Hill. University of Leeds, UK. Paul R. Appleton

Transcription

1 International Journal of Sport Psychology, in press PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 1 Perfectionism in Sport and Dance: Introduction to the Special Issue Andrew P. Hill University of Leeds, UK Paul R. Appleton University of Birmingham, UK Howard K. Hall York St John University, UK Author Note Andrew P Hill, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds; Paul R Appleton, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham; Howard K Hall, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, York St John University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Andrew Hill, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom. a.p.hill@leeds.ac.uk

2 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 2 Abstract The article provides an introduction to the special issue on perfectionism in sport and dance. In it we provide a context for the special issue, our thoughts on how research is progressing in this area, and a brief description of the contributions to the special issue. In doing so, we identify some of the notable features of each study and the new insights they offer. The contributions use qualitative and quantitative methods, both established and contemporary models of perfectionism, and illustrate how do test these models using different analytical approaches. Overall, we believe that the collection of studies attests to the predictive ability of perfectionism in its various guises and affirms the relevance of perfectionism in understanding the experiences of athletes and dancers.

3 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 3 Perfectionism in Sport and Dance: Introduction to the Special Issue This issue of the International Journal of Sport Psychology (IJSP) is dedicated to the implications of perfectionism in sport and dance. Perfectionism is an achievement related personality characteristic that includes excessively high standards of performance and selfcritical evaluative tendencies (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). It is over 20 years since Frost and Henderson (1991) provided the first empirical study of the effects of perfectionism in sport. Evidencing the progress since, a number of review papers (e.g., Gotwals, Stoeber, Dunn & Otto, 2012; Stoeber, 2011) and book chapters (e.g., Hall, 2013; Stoeber, 2012) have recently been published. These provide compelling evidence for the notion that perfectionism has much to say about the thoughts (e.g., confidence), feelings (e.g., anxiety), and behaviours (e.g., performance) exhibited by athletes and dancers. When calling for contributions to the special issue we invited regular contributors to this area to demonstrate this importance and relevance. We believe the contributors have done so and are pleased to present their work. In producing the special issue, it was apparant to us that this area can be difficult to navigate. Among other reasons, this is because there are a number of different ways in which perfectionism is conceptualised and measured, as well as disagreement in terms of its core features. However, we note that attempts to organise this area and examine similarities and differences in approaches has revealed much commonality (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Stoeber, 2011). Although work is ongoing, and many differences of opinion are yet to be resolved, this work provides a general heuristic through which seemingly disparate models and measures can be understood as part of a single higher-order model (viz. perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns). There is also growing acknowledgement among those researching in this area that perfectionism has many faces (Benson, 2003) and that different approaches may

4 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 4 be necessary depending on the specific context and research question being posed. These advances, and as yet unresolved differences, provide the backdrop (and map) for the special issue. On our part, we believe that a healthy mix of collaboration and scholarly debate has been responsible for much of the progress in this area. We have written extensively elsewhere about our own perspective on perfectionism and have sought to highlight (and occasionally tried to answer) some of the key questions and concerns that we believe remain unaddressed (e.g., Hill, Hall, & Appleton, 2012; Hill, 2014). We have also recently been fortunate to collaborate with a number of members of the field who do not fully share our perspective (e.g., Hill, Stoeber, Brown, & Appleton, 2014; Mallinson, Hill, Hall, & Gotwals, in press). In each instance, we have been surprised by how similar our perspectives are and how easily differences have been to reconcil in our joint work. This special issue is intended to be an extension of these two ventures. We hope that it provides impetus for both additional collaborative work and further academic debate. With regards to the contributions to the special issue, the first article by Gotwals and Spencer-Cavaliere adopts qualitative methods to provide first-hand accounts of the experiences of perfectionistic athletes. Other members of the field have used similar methods to explore perfectionism in clinical (e.g., Ashby, Slaney, Noble, Gnilka, & Rice, 2012) and academic contexts (e.g., Spiers Neumeister, Williams, & Cross, 2007). However, to our knowledge, the study reported here is the first to use these methods to do so in sport. As such, it is an important addition to this area and offers unique insight into perfectionism from the perspective of those who report it in their own terms (Patton, 1980, p.22). We can think of no better starting point

5 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 5 of resolving issues regarding if, when, and how perfectionism influences the lives of athletes than asking them directly. The second study by Dunn and colleagues builds upon research that has identified perfectionism as an important contributor to the stress process (see Hewitt & Flett, 1996). Here, Dunn and colleagues examine whether groups of perfectionists report different strategies to cope with a performance slump. There are two notable features of this study. The first feature is that a person-oriented approach is adopted whereby emphasis is placed on groups, rather than dimensions. Dunn and colleagues are strong advocates for this approach and provide a robust case for its use. The second feature is that it leans towards understanding the influence of perfectionism using the tripartite model (Stoeber & Otto, 2006). This is an established and well supported model. The study by Dunn et al. presented here provides a good example of its use. An emerging alternative approach is provided by Crocker and colleagues in the third study. Crocker et al examine the influence of perfectionism on the stress process via assessment of appraisals and coping strategies in a longitudinal manner. In this regard, it complements the study by Dunn et al. nicely. However, rather than adopting the tripartite model and a personcentered approach, this study utilizes the recently developed 2 x 2 model of perfectionism and adopts a variable-centered approach (see Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010). Although differences exist between the two papers, there are also strong similarities. In particular, both emphasize the importance of treating perfectionism as multidimensional and the importance of comparing the effects of different combinations of its dimensions. In addition, both illustrate the explanatory power of different combinations of perfectionism in regards to stress processes in sport. We look forward to future attempts to reconcile the differences between the two approaches. For now, we

6 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 6 encourage readers to consider the merits of each approach and evaluate them against the ability to explain the differences in experiences among athletes and dancers. The 2 x 2 model is also adopted by Quested and colleagues in the fourth study (in this case accompanied by a person-oriented approach). This research group has previously published the only study to examine the 2 x 2 model in dancers to date. Here, they revisit this data and examine how combinations of perfectionism differ in terms of hitherto unreported criterion variables. These include variables associated with the motives for participation (intrinsic motivation and fear of failure) and self-evaluations (self-esteem and body dissatisfaction). In doing so, it extends both their previous work and the work of others interested in the consequences of perfectionism among dancers (e.g., Nordin-Bates, Cummings, Aways, & Sharp, 2011). They have also taken the opportunity to scrutinise one of the hypotheses of the 2 x 2 model (hypothesis 3). We have recently questioned the conceptual grounds on which this hypothesis is based (e.g., Hall, Jowett, & Hill, 2014). Therefore, we were pleased to see Quested and colleagues respond to our concerns. We feel this study provides a good example of how revisiting previous data can provide new conceptual and empirical insights. In the final study presented in the special issue, Curran and colleagues examine the relationship between Hewitt and Flett s (1991) dimensions of perfectionism and passion in youth sports participants. We are strong proponents of Hewitt and Flett s model as we believe it offers firm theoretical footing from which the correlates, processes, and consequences of perfectionism can be extrapolated. This is exemplified by Curran and colleagues study in which the motivational signature of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism predictably include distinct associations with harmonious and obsessive passions. This is the first study to demonstrate these relationships and will hopefully provide the basis for a new line of enquiry

7 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 7 guided by the abundant literature on passion in sport and other contexts (e.g., Vallerand, 2008; Vallerand & Miquelon, 2007). The special issue closes with two invited commentaries. The first commentary is provided by Joachim Stoeber. Stoeber continues to make a substantial contribution to our understanding of perfectionism in sport (and in a range of other contexts). His research examining the relationship between perfectionism and achievement goals, anxiety, and performance are particularly noteworthy due to the prominence and importance of these concepts in sport psychology (e.g., Stoeber, Otto, Pescheck, Becker, & Stoll, 2007; Stoeber, Uphill, & Hotham, 2009; Stoeber, Stoll, Salmi, & Tiikkaja, 2009). The second commentary is provided by Gordon Flett and Paul Hewitt. Their work has guided research in the area of perfectionism for over two decades. Although their main area of interest lies outside of sport, their short paper the perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise, published in 2005, provided an important springboard for much of our own research. It is therefore deeply satisfying for us that the first special issue in sport and dance dedicated to perfectionism closes with their thoughts. Acknowledgements We thank and acknowledge colleagues who gave their time in reviewing contributions to this special issue: L. Boone, C. Douilliez, P. Gaudreau, J. K. Gotwals, M-A. Lafrenière, P-N. Lemyre, G. Martinent, S. McArdle, T. Mouratidis, S. M. Nordin-Bates, K. Spiers-Neumeister, J. Stoeber, and J. R. Grove.

8 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 8 References Ashby, J.S., Slaney, R.B., Noble, C.M., Gnilka, P.B., & Rice, K.G. (2012). Understanding differences between Normal and Neurotic perfectionists: Implications for mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 34, Benson, E. (2003). The many faces of perfectionism. Monitor, 34, 18. Frost, R. O., & Henderson, K. J. (1991). Perfectionism and reactions to athletic competition. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, Frost, R. O., Marten, P. A., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, Gaudreau, P., & Thompson, A. (2010). Testing a 2 x 2 model of dispositional perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, Gotwals, J. K., Stoeber, J., Dunn, J. G. H., & Stoll, O. (2012). Are perfectionistic strivings in sport adaptive? A systematic review of confirmatory, contradictory, and mixed evidence. Canadian Psychology, 53, Hall, H. K. (2013) From adaptive achievement striving to athletic burnout: The debilitating influence of perfectionism. In D. Hackfort and I. Seidelmeier (Editors) Bridging Gaps in Applied Sport and Exercise Psychology, Pages 53-78, FIT Publishers. ISBN Hall, H. K., Jowett, G. E., & Hill, A. P. (2014). Perfectionism: The role of personality in shaping an athlete s sporting experience. In A. Papaioannou & D. Hackfort (Eds.), Routledge Companion to Sport and Exercise Psychology: Global Perspectives and Fundamental Concepts (pp ). London: Routledge. ISBN-13:

9 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 9 Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, Hewitt, P. L. & Flett, G. L. (1996). Personality traits and the coping process. In M. Zeidner and 6 N. S. Endler (Eds.), (1996). Handbook of coping. Theory, research, applications (pp ). New York: Wiley. Hill, A. P. (2014). Perfectionistic strivings and the perils of partialling. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Accepted for publication Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Appleton, P. R. (2012). An assessment of the similarities between a measure of positive perfectionism and a measure of conscientious achievement striving. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, Hill, A. P., Stoeber, J., Brown, A., & Appleton, P. A. (2014). Team perfectionism and team performance: A prospective study. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36, Mallinson, S.M., Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Gotwals, J. (in press). The 2 2 Model of Perfectionism and School- and Community-Based Sport Participation. Psychology in the Schools. Accepted for publication Nordin-Bates, S. M., Cumming, J., Aways, D., 1 & Sharp, L. (2011). Imagining yourself dancing to perfection? Correlates of perfectionism among ballet and contemporary dancers. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 5, Patton, M.Q. (1980). Qualitative evaluation methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Speirs Neumeister, K. L., Williams, K. K., & Cross, T. L. (2007). Perfectionism in gifted highschool students: Responses to academic challenge. Roeper Review, 29,

10 PERFECTIONISM IN SPORT AND DANCE 10 Stoeber, J. (2011). The dual nature of perfectionism in sports: Relationships with emotion, motivation, and performance. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, Stoeber, J. (2012). Perfectionism and performance. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp ). New York: Oxford University Press. Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, Stoeber, J., Stoll, O., Salmi, O., & Tiikkaja, J. (2009). Perfectionism and achievement goals in young Finnish ice-hockey players aspiring to make the Under-16 national team. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, Stoeber, J., Uphill, M. A., & Hotham, S. (2009). Predicting race performance in triathlon: The role of perfectionism, achievement goals, and personal goal setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31, Vallerand, R. J. (2008). On the psychology of passion: In search of what makes people s lives most worth living. Canadian Psychology, 49, Vallerand, R. J., & Miquelon, P. (2007). Passion for sport in athletes. In S. Jowett, & D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp ). Champaign: Human Kinetics.