Imagery is a valuable tool for badminton players to implement tactics

Transcription

1 Humanistic Assignment for Aalborg Sports High School Imagery is a valuable tool for badminton players to implement tactics Are badminton players skilled in the use of imagery? How can we support the development of tactics in badminton with the use of imagery? by: Richard D Cruz, Noel Prendergast, Antti Rajasärkkä,

2 Table of Contents Introduction... 1 Problem Statement... 1 Description... 3 Imagery Defined... 3 Imaging for developing tactics... 4 Effectiveness of Imaging... 5 Imaging in Detail... 6 Who should use Imaging... 6 Criteria for Successful Imaging... 9 Analysis Results Validity of the survey Evaluation Developing an imagery training program How to include imagery in badminton tactical training Conclusion References Appendix 1: The questionnaire characters = 14, ch/pg

3 1 Introduction Studies have shown that psychological /mental skills can be used to support development of sports skills specifically; technical skills, tactical skills, physical and mental preparation, for training and competition performance. Many of us have heard of the term mental preparation when it comes to sport. We may have heard that mental preparation is very important to athletes when they are preparing for competition. You may even have heard of many terms associated with mental preparation, such as visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, imagery and mental practice. In the last two decades, these forms of mental practice have been collectively termed imagery, and the potential uses and effectiveness of imagery has been systematically studied 1. Does this mean that imagery has benefits when it comes to badminton and if so, could we apply imagery to badminton to benefit players in implementing successful tactics? Problem Statement This led us to the formulation of our problem statement; Imagery is a valuable tool for badminton players to implement tactics This links the theory of imaging to what we are asserting. First we look at imaging in more depth and the ways it might be used to implement tactics. This led us to question whether badminton players currently use imagery in their play and gave us our first question, Are badminton players skilled at imaging? This led us on to the development of our second question, namely: How can we support the development of tactics in badminton with the use of imagery? Why the focus on club and elite players? Sport is essentially defined by its competitive nature, and competition is effectively any arena, social, club, national or international, where the player is required to bring together 1 Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p.296

4 2 all the elements of the particular sport: physical, technical, mental, and tactical, to show understanding and ability to perform. The main focus of our study was the competitive arena at club and national level. It was considered that at these levels it was more likely that the badminton player was self-aware of a certain level of ability, has a desire to compete, and has an inherent desire to improve. As potential badminton coaches we felt that these playing standards/levels were of most interest, and that players showing imagery skills at these playing levels would have a good basis for further development in the use of imagery skills and the motivation to implement some of the ideas which arise from our findings. Why the focus on tactics? We were aware of the anecdotal evidence surrounding the use of imagery in other sports, perhaps most significantly in golf, but surprised that imagery had little mention in badminton press and/or general discussion in the main badminton arenas of club play and elite level competition. While it seemed more easily applicable to physical skills, technical skills, and even mental strength development, the potential use in tactical skills development was an area that we thought demanded further examination. We felt that the tactical side of the game is often neglected in the training of badminton players, and the use of imagery might be helpful. Why a questionnaire? We chose an electronic questionnaire format for the study as it was the easiest way to circulate to a wide audience, made best use of the time available, and it seemed most relevant to facilitate responses relating to people s knowledge and perceptions of the subject. With this in mind we adopted the Sport Imagery Questionnaire developed by Weinberg & Gould 2, for use in England, Finland and Ireland to see the level of imagery that is in use in these countries and to allow some comparative data on the usage or perhaps knowledge of the subject by participants. The online survey form was installed on a Finnish website and we contacted key personnel in the three mentioned countries to assist with its circulation, as well as using our personal contacts to players. 2 Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p

5 3 Description We all engage in imaging, particularly at young ages, when our imaginations are most active. As we grow up, we are instructed not to use imagery and to live in the real world, although as we will see later, imagery is an important tool in developing badminton players. Here we will define Imagery and refer to research to see if imaging is indeed a useful tool for developing badminton tactics. We will also examine how beneficial imaging is and who could benefit most from imaging. Concluding the description section is a detailed description of imaging and what are the most important features of successful imaging. Imagery Defined One definition of Imagery is Imagery is a process that involves recalling from memory pieces of information stored from experience and shaping these pieces into meaningful images. 3 Imagery is actually a form of simulation. Through imagery you can recreate previous positive experiences or picture new events to prepare yourself mentally for performance. There are various anecdotal reports on the use of imagery, including that of Chris Evert, who is cited as saying: Before I play a match, I try to carefully rehearse what is likely to happen and how I will react in certain situations. I visualise myself playing typical points based on my opponent s style of play. I see myself hitting crisp, deep shots from the baseline and coming to the net if I get a weak return. This helps me mentally prepare for a match, and I feel like I ve already played the match before I even walk on the court. 4 So, it is clear that Chris Evert has been using imagery for tactics since the seventies. We all typically use imagery to recreate experiences, particularly in relation to important events, such as competitions, although perhaps we can do this in some systematic way for 3 Weinberg & Gould, 2007 p Tarshis, 1977

6 4 badminton players to improve their tactics. We might imagine how we would respond to a smash from a good badminton player, for example; would we play a straight smash return, or a cross smash return? Imaging for developing tactics Imagery can have many different functions. According to Paivio 5, imagery has two main functions in mediating behaviour: cognitive and motivational, and that each are capable of being oriented toward either general or specific behavioural goals. Motivational Cognitive Specific Goal-oriented responses (e.g., imaging oneself winning an event and receiving a medal). Skills (e.g., imaging performance of a particular badminton shot) General Arousal (e.g., controlling emotions in stressful situations) Strategy (e.g., imaging carrying out a strategy to win a competition ) Figure 1: Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery On the cognitive side, it is possible to use imaging to develop specific skills or to develop general strategies. Recent research has divided Cognitive General (CG) into strategy development and strategy execution 6. Interesting for us is that many studies have supported the performance-enhancing effects of CG imagery in a variety of sports. These are of particular interest to us for the tactical development of badminton players. Badminton tactics may be defined as the strategy or plan devised prior to and implemented during a match, or the decisions made during and between rallies, or who, what, where, when and why we do something on court. 5 A. Paivio, Weinberg & Gould, 2007

7 5 We are aware of the likely tactical responses of players to particular strokes according to our tactical body of knowledge 7, 8. We have shots in our repertoire that will precipitate certain responses, often as they are disguised or played with deception. Years of research have indicated that tasks involving mostly cognitive components, such as decision making and perception, show the greatest positive benefits from imagery rehearsal 9. We can easily say that tactics, at the most basic level is a choice and decision making process. How then can we develop this body of knowledge into winning badminton tactics? Effectiveness of Imaging Aside from anecdotal evidence, there are also case studies and experiments, which should offer a more reliable prediction of the value of imagery. A study conducted at the United States Olympic Training Center indicated that 100% of sport psychology consultants and 90% of Olympic athletes used some form of imagery, with 97% of these athletes believing that it helped their performance 10. Orlick and Partington 11 reported that 99% of Canadian Olympians used imagery. Another multiple-baseline case study has found positive effects of imagery on performance enhancement and other psychological variables such as confidence and coping with anxiety 12. Evidence from scientific experiments in support of imagery is also impressive and clearly demonstrates the value of imagery in learning and performing motor skills 13. Imagery should be added to one s normal physical practice, as something that could give individuals an edge 7 Larsen, unpublished 8 Larsen & Meibom, Feltz & Landers, Murphy, Jowdy & Durtschi, Orlick & Partington, Evans, Jones, & Mullen, Feltz & Landers, 1983; Martin, Moriz, & Hall, 1999; Morris, Spittle, & Perry, 2004; Murphy, 1994; Murphy & Martin, 2002

8 6 in improving performance 14. These studies all suggest that imagery is useful, but that it does not replace the need for practice. The evidence spans a variety of sports, but perhaps most notably includes volleyball and tennis, which could be considered similar to badminton. Imaging in Detail According to Munroe, it can be said that there are four aspects of imaging 15 : Images of the surroundings in which the athlete competes The positive or negative character of images, The senses involved in imagery (the types of imagery ) The perspective (internal vs. external) the athlete takes in creating imagery. Imaging surroundings can add to the vividness of the image and make it more realistic. It would be typically used when the surroundings would be an issue, such as a badminton player imaging a loud crowd around them. Imagery can be said to be positive or negative, as stated above. Negative imagery is reported as more common in competition than in practice. Imagery can be negative for a number of reasons: it can create too much anxiety, it can direct attention to irrelevant factors, it can be uncontrollable, leading to mistakes, or it can also make the imager overconfident. Athletes report basically four types of imagery (visual, kinesthetic, auditory and olfactory). Finally, the perspective of the image may be internal or external. Few studies confirm whether internal or external perspectives are more useful, and many Olympic athletes use both. 16 Recall, Chris Evert s imaging of the court and her movements on the court. Who should use Imaging So we know what imagery is by definition and we can say without doubt that imagery is useful for developing tactics in badminton. Unpublished material by Kenneth Larsen claims that tactical learning occurs throughout the badminton learning process. The question 14 Vealey & Walter, Munroe et al., Murphy, Fleck, Dudley, & Callister 1990

9 7 remains as to who should use imagery. Should it be beginners, competent players, and elite athletes; or should it be some subsection of the entire group? Novice and highly skilled performers who use imagery on cognitive tasks show the most positive effects 17. For the elite, however, the physical and psychological aspects might be the most important areas to work on 18. In addition, imaging ability has been shown to be an important factor in distinguishing between elite and non-elite or successful and less successful performers 19. The Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition 20 postulates that when individuals acquire a skill through external instruction, they normally pass through five stages. The model proposes that the five stages of skill acquisition are: Novice, Advanced beginner, Competent, Proficient and Expert. In the novice stage a person follows rules that are context free and feel no responsibility for anything other than following the rules. Competence develops when the number of rules becomes excessive so organizing principles need to be developed and information sorted by relevance. Competence is characterized by active decision making. Proficiency is shown in individuals who use intuition in decision making and develop their own rules to formulate plans. Imagery can be used to support the decision making process and thereby assist the player to move through the levels of competence. 17 Weinberg & Gould, Ømosegaard, Bo Murphy, Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986

10 8 Novice rigid adherence to rules no discretional judgement Advanced Beginner situational perception still limited all aspects of work are treated separately and given equal importance Competent coping with crowdedness (multiple activity, information) now partially sees action as part of longer term goals conscious, deliberate planning Proficient holistic view of situation, rather than in terms of aspects sees what is most important in a situation uses maxims for guidance, meaning of maxims may vary according to situation Expert no longer reliant on rules, guidelines, maxims intuitive grasp of situation, based on tacit knowledge vision of what is possible Figure 2: Dreyfus model of skill acquisition The evidence from the research would suggest that using imaging should most likely be carried out throughout the learning of badminton, as its value is established at both ends of the spectrum of learning and we could consider that competent players could benefit from establishing good practices of imaging. Imaging facilitates successful performances. Imagery ability is another potential explanation for these differences in imagery use. Most researchers agree that everyone seems to have the ability to generate and use imagery by the age of seven 21, 22. However, differences certainly exist in the extent to which people can 21 Isaac & Marks, Piaget & Inhelder, 1971

11 9 do so 23, 24. Indeed, several studies indicate that imagery ability is one of the most important factors that will influence how effective imagery will be in enhancing performance. Studies examining the acquisition of motor skills have found that individuals with higher imagery ability are better able to learn, retain, and reacquire skills 25. According to Piaget s stages of cognitive development, the highest level of cognitive ability begins at approximately 11 to 12 years when individuals enter the stage of formal operations, which is characterized by abstract thinking and enhanced problem-solving skills 26. It is also around this time when individuals enter the third and final stage in the development of attention, and marked improvements in coordination occurs for the performance of motor skills 27. Criteria for Successful Imaging There are two keys to successful imaging - these are vividness and controllability and they are acquired through practice. As mentioned earlier, the greater the number of senses that can be recruited the better. Let us consider each in turn. Vividness comes from creating an experience in the mind that is as close as possible to the actual experience. Imagers should work through the detail of the environment and try to experience the emotion and detail of the actual competition. To be vivid imagery should involve as many senses as possible. The senses used can include kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory. Controllability is the ability to manipulate the images to get them to do what is wanted, rather than performing mistakes. The key to good controllability is practice, and it could take quite a while to achieve. Exercises to improve vividness and controllability may be of significant benefit. 23 Hall et al, Murphy & Martin, Goss et al, Payne & Isaacs, Haywood, 1993

12 10 Analysis So, in accordance with a large body of evidence we can say that imagery is effective for badminton tactics. With this in mind we decided to survey badminton players to see how competent they are in imaging. We adopted the Sport Imagery Questionnaire 28 (see Appendix 1) and surveyed badminton players through the English, Finnish and Irish national badminton websites along with personal contacts to players via s and Facebook. The Sport Imagery Questionnaire primarily focuses on the ability to generate vivid images, which is a key criterion for successful imaging as stated in the description part. In addition to the main questionnaire we asked for some statistical data: gender, age, have they had any training in imagery and their level in sports (international, national or club level). The surveyed had also a chance to write about their views on imagery in general. Along the way we decided to survey the Sports High School students as well to get more responses. Participants were asked to use their own sport when imaging instead of badminton. Results We got 33 answers back, 24 via the Internet and 9 from the SPH students. 21 rated themselves as club, 9 national and only 3 international level players. 9 (43%) of the club level players reported that they had had some training in imagery; the number for the national level players was 3 (33%) and for the international level players 3 (100%) (see Figure 3). 28 Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p

13 11 Figure 3: The percentage of players that had had any training in imagery The level of training shows in the wider (conscious) usage of imagery: it seems that the international players use imagery in more situations than the national and club level players (Figure 4). The same trend can be seen, if players who have had training in imagery are compared to players without any training (Figure 5) Figure 4: The situations when players have used imagery.

14 % 90 % 80 % 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0 % In which situations have you used imagery? Training a skill Preparing a game plan Motivating yourself Controlling your emotions Trained (n=15) Not trained (n=18) Figure 5: The imagery usage comparing trained and untrained players The written comments further indicate that players find imagery a valuable tool: I use imagery mostly to control my emotions during a match, to keep my concentration and make it easier to carry out tactics. I find it to be very efficient tool and I believe it has helped me a lot. (F, 23, International level) [Imagery helps my badminton performance] because you are aware of different situations before they happen. (M, 27, International) Vital. Need it to prepare for situations in which you are inexperienced. (M, 33, club level) I think it is extremely useful and has helped me many times during the years when I actively participated in competitions. I think it is important to train one's mind, to imagine positive outcomes, to build up self-confidence by using imagery. (F, 42, national level) To our surprise the vividness results were diverse. There was practically no difference in the imagery vividness score in relation to playing level, age or training background (Figure 6).

15 13 a. 20,0 Imagery vividness score 15,0 10,0 Trained (n=15) Not trained (n=18) b. 5,0 Seeing Hearing Kinesthetic Mood Total score Sum c. Age Figure 6: The vividness results. a. shows little difference between international, national and club level players, b. shows little difference between trained and untrained players and finally c. shows no correlation between the vividness score and age. Maximum score in each category was 20; for the total score the maximum was 80.

16 14 Nevertheless there was a distinct difference in relation to gender. But the number of answers is so low, that these can be explained only by random variation. For example if we eliminate one extremely low scoring female from the results, the male and female averages start to get close (see Figure 7). An interesting feature though remains: the females seem to be much more aware of their mood than males! 20,0 Imagery vividness score 15,0 10,0 Male (n=26) Female (n=7) Female-1 (n=6) 5,0 Seeing Hearing Kinesthetic Mood Figure 7: The vividness score in men versus women. The pink column is women without one extremely low scoring answer. Validity of the survey There are some features that might have a big impact on the results of the survey: We have no control over who answered to the survey. Perhaps it was only people who find imagery interesting. The question about training isn t definite: a player answering yes might have had one single training session or a systematic training for years in imagery. The scales people use probably vary a lot (5 for somebody might be a 3 for somebody else). The level of a player is only a subjective view.

17 15 Evaluation Badminton is a very versatile game. At elite level it makes enormous technical, tactical, physical and psychological demands. Evidence exists supporting the potential benefits of developing the use of psychological/mental skills by badminton players, to improve training and competition performance 29. Bo Ømosegaard 30 suggests that in the game of badminton technique is by far the most important part of the game for a beginner to learn; for the elite, the physical and psychological aspects may be the most important areas to work on. While psychological/mental skills may not be the highest priority at junior levels, developing the basic use of these skills in junior players will of course support further psychological/mental skill development in later years. Badminton England have brought out a booklet 31, such is the level of respect for the mental side of badminton. Imagery is introduced to players aged 9 for boys and 8 for girls. The concept of using imagery for competition is introduced to children in the 11 to 16 age bracket. Developing an imagery training program Weinberg and Williams (2001) have suggested that psychological/mental skills are developed in a similar manner to physical skills in that positive effects occur after extensive practice and application. Furthermore, Hall (2001) has suggested that imagery for the rehearsal of skills (i.e., cognitive specific) should be treated in a similar fashion to physical practice. Research examining imagery use, however, suggests that many athletes do not approach imagery practice in the same structured (i.e., plan duration and topics to be imaged) and regular (i.e., at a specific time each day) fashion that they approach physical practice 32, Callow, Hardy and Hall, Ømosegaard, 1996, p Partington & Partington, 2005, p Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991

18 16 The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a workshop aimed at developing more I've no imagination! If I had time to regular and structured imagery training and an sit and think, it may be beneficial overall increase in imagery use with basketball but I always seem to be in a rush! players. (F, 26, club level) To this end, recommendations have been made regarding the delivery of a psychological skills training program to help athletes more effectively adopt and adhere to the training program 34. This identified several barriers that prevented athletes from adhering to a psychological skills training program, which included lack of time, a need for an individualized package, and a disruptive home environment. Identification of these barriers led to the suggestion that athletes be provided with a program that was individualized in terms of content. Furthermore, adherence-related strategies should be offered, such as advice on time management, how to structure and schedule psychological skills training, and how to integrate psychological skills into existing training programs 35. Employing the knowledge we have of imagery use and the recommendations advanced by Shambrook and Bull (1999) regarding the delivery of a psychological skills training program, it is now more possible than ever to design imagery training programs tailored to meet the individual needs of developing athletes. Various approaches can be employed to teach athletes how to use psychological skills. One common approach when dealing with a number of athletes (e.g., a team) is to deliver a workshop (Bull, 1991) and encourage the players to establish a regular routine of imagery use by starting with short imagery sessions that were high in quality, and then gradually increase the frequency and duration of these sessions. (Orlick s (1990) recommendation). 33 Barr & Hall, Bull, Shambrook & Bull, 1999

19 17 In summary the recommendations are to: individualise the imaging. advise players on time management and how to structure and diarise imaging sessions. make the sessions regular. incorporate the imaging practice into normal training sessions. deliver the imaging in a work shop session for teams. Simons (2000) provided some good practical tips for implementing an imagery training programme in the field. In addition, Holmes and Collins (2001) offered some guidelines to make imagery more effective, which they called their PETTLEP program because it emphasised the following: The Physical nature of the movement The specifics of the Environment The type of Task The Timing of the movement Learning the content of the movement The Emotion (meaning to the individual) of the movement The Perspective of the person (internal or external) How to include imagery in badminton tactical training The idea that a full education phase for the development of imaging skills must precede any training is too rigid and unrealistic. From a coaches viewpoint some of the usage of imagery will be simple tactical instruction to players on, what, where, when and why to use particular shots in particular situations. Once the player has mastered the technical production of a particular badminton stroke, it needs to be put into the context of the rally. Players need to be aware of the tactical choices they have: what shot to play, where, when and why. As junior players move into the more senior levels of competition and play they need to be able to analyse their own and their opponent s game before, during and after matches-with the intention of being able to choose a suitable starting tactic - and the ability to react to tactical changes in the specific game.

20 18 What we are trying to develop in players is an automated awareness i.e. the ability to recognise and react to images and associations. By doing so the player moves to a higher level of competence (Dreyfus & Dreyfus model 36 ). The computations for the sequence of choices, what if considerations, could get quite complex, however basic tactical principles have been developed, relevant to age, sex and skill levels for each of the five disciplines within badminton: men s and ladies singles, mixed, men s and ladies doubles 37, and it is perhaps worth applying our findings on the use of imagery into these areas. With our knowledge of tactics in badminton and the PETTLEP model, we considered how imaging might be brought into normal training sessions and competition, to support a player s tactical knowledge and awareness. Imaging quality could perhaps move from formal to functional, just as the main technical, physical and tactical training practice does, as the player moves through the seasonal training programme. It seems appropriate to split the possible application of imagery into the three main competition stages: pre-competition (i.e. training) competition post competition. Pre-competition (training) Both club and elite players will generally have regular training days, with some matches or competitions each month. For elite players the training sessions will vary in volume and intensity depending on where he/she is in the overall seasonal programme. During normal training sessions the following imaging exercises could be undertaken: 1. Explain to the players the tactical principle you are going to work on in this particular training session or game. Prior to the physical practice ask them to develop as vivid 36 Dreyfus & Dreyfus, Larsen, unpublished

21 19 an image as possible of the sequence of shots, with a successful conclusion encourage them to use all of their sensory capacity. 2. Vividness and control of image are key components of the imaging process and should not be rushed. Players should perhaps describe the images in detail to the coach at least initially to ensure players are getting to the right quality of imagery. All sensory components need to be involved. 3. Inform the players that after a game up to 5 points you will ask them to recall a particular rally/point and they have to describe the point in detail with all sensory feedback used. This supports memory development and provides confirmation that the player is imaging in a vivid way. 4. Ask the players to adopt a particular style of play e.g. defensive, and ask players first how that made them feel; and then how they thought the opponents reacted to this way of playing; and finally what images this produced giving complete sensory feedback. 5. Ask players to use imagery during intervals in a match to support tactical play (e.g. between rallies, mid-game interval, at the end of each set). Ask the players to describe and/or write down their perception of their own imaging performance after the match - this should include all the sensory information available, visual, auditory, olfactory and emotional. 6. Ask players whether a particular image used in the game reminded them of previous instances when they used that image; and how that influenced them. 7. Ask players to describe on a scale of one to ten how well they used imagery during the match and what effect they think it had. This will help monitoring how imagery quality is developing. 8. Work with oral evaluations of the use of imaging of games, both immediately after the game and at a later point, with the intention of developing a mental archive of opponents, but also with the intention of developing the tactical analytical skills of the player. 9. Encourage doubles partners to exchange and reinforce tactical imagery details with each other during the course of the game. This could even be developed into a code words and/or visual signals for deployment of particular tactics to be used.

22 20 Competition Competitive situations, often a primary focus for both coaches and players, provide an excellent opportunity for coaches to apply also other sport psychology principles and techniques when developing a game plan, goal setting and routines the night, the hours and the minutes before, and tactical rehearsals, each of which overlap with imagery use. People who are highly skilled in the use of imagery can perform the technique almost anywhere. As skills develop, people learn to use imagery amid distractions and even in actual competition 38. The interval nature of the game allows the players regular opportunity to assess and reassess their status in the game and adjust tactics and imaging material as necessary. The current rules also allow a coach some access to the player after each rally, after 11 points, and again after each set. Both tactics and imaging could be re-enforced during these moments. To make giving tactical advice to players more efficient, the coach should try to express his ideas in a way that the player can create an exact image of the situation. For example the following commonly used tactical phrases could be better expressed: General make less errors play more to the net attack more take the initiative Specific, creates an image of the situation when the shuttle is already behind you, play a clear or pulled shot instead of smashing when you reach the shuttle close to the net cord, play a net shot instead of lifting smash more often, when you get a lift shorter than doubles service line when the opponent is smashing, try to use your counter strokes: cross block smash returns or flat returns if the smash is higher 38 Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p. 312

23 21 Just as tactics can be reviewed after a match, there is no reason why imaging quality and content cannot be similarly reviewed. This could be supported by questions and feedback to support a player s understanding. As previously suggested, the level of imagery and language used for demonstration and discussion will be dependent on the player s age, education and experience 39. Post competition Once players can competently image different shot patterns they can use imaging to help develop their tactical awareness and to evaluate performance. Players can be directed towards imaging recent performances in order to pick out key patterns used by the opponents. They can also evaluate their own responses to opponent s shot and can image alternative (successful) responses that can be taken into the training environment. Coaches should hold post match/tournament interviews with players which include feedback not only on what tactics were used by both him and the opponent, but also whether the player felt that the imagery used worked. Imagery should be considered a piece of the armoury that a badminton player has available to him/her. It supplements physical, technical and tactical training and can, similarly, be trained and developed over time; over months or even years. In this context all experience builds the database of knowledge, memory banks of the badminton player. Recognising past situations/patterns is fundamental to the development of strong, vivid and controlled imagery. All knowledge gained, including effect of using imagery and/or ease of using imagery from both winning or losing is therefore invaluable and needs to be analysed, recorded and used to develop imagery skills. Players should therefore be encouraged to maintain imagery use diaries. 39 Larsen, unpublished

24 22 Conclusion There is nothing new in the use of imagery to develop performance, since it is fundamental to the learning process. Most badminton coaches will be able to relate to its use in physical, technical skill development. Some will even use it, albeit in a fairly basic form, in competition work (concentrate, focus!). Our survey results also indicate that lower level players don t get trained in imagery. Badminton, like boxing or tennis, is a game where the outcome is not only determined by one s own actions, but also by the opponent s actions. At elite level there is often very little distinction between the playing standards of one player and another, the difference between winning and losing can be one or two points. Elite players will therefore always be interested in developing an aspect of the game which can give them the edge. The current use of psychological/mental skills is limited and possibly only used at elite level; the use of imagery in the development of tactics perhaps even less so. The potential for the use of imagery to support tactical awareness and development would seem therefore to be quite significant. Given the benefits of imagery, badminton coaches should promote the use of imagery as a normal part of the training session, at all levels of play. Also when giving tactical advice to players the coach should try to get the player to construct images of specific situations relating to tactical choices. From our own knowledge, experience and survey data players do use imagery, but perhaps not in any structured way, especially at lower levels. Badminton coaches and players need to ensure their own knowledge of this area is sufficient to meet the current demands of the game. There should also be enough understanding of the area to know when the imagery problems expressed by the player exceed the competence level or experience of the coach. Referral to a sports psychologist may at times be appropriate.

25 23 References Barr, K., Hall, C. (1992). The use of imagery by rowers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, Bull, S. (1991). Personal and situation influences on adherence to mental skills training. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, Callow, N., Hardy, L., Hall, C. (2001). The effects of a Motivational General-Mastery Imagery Intervention on the Sport Confidence of High-Level Badminton Players, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72, Dreyfus, HL & Dreyfus, SE (1986). Mind over Machine: the power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. Oxford; Basil Blackwell Evans, L., Jones, L., & Mullen, R. (2004). An imagery intervention during the competitive season with an elite rugby union player. The Sport Psychologist, 18, Feltz, D.L. & Landers, D.M. (1983). The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: A meta analysis. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, Goss, S. et al (1986). Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movements. Memory & cognition, 10, Hall, CR et al (1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of the Sports Imagery Quetionnaire. International Journal of Sports Psychology Hall, CR (2001). Imagery in sport and exercise. In Handbook of sports psychology (2nd ed., p ). New York, USA, Wiley. Haywood, K. M. (1993). Life span motor development (2nd edition). Champaign, USA: Human Kinetics. Holmes, P. & Collins, D. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A functional equivalence model for sports psychologists. Journal of Applied Sports Psychology, 13, Isaac, A. R., & Marks, D. F. (1994). Individual differences in mental imagery experience: Developmental changes and specialization. British Journal of Psychology, 85, Larsen, K. Foundations of player development in badminton. Unpublished. Larsen, K., Meibom, J. (2007) Taktik i Badminton, Danmarks Badminton Forbund.

26 24 Martin, K., Moritz, S., & Hall, C. (1999) Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. The Sport Psychologist, 13, Morris, T., Spittle, M., & Perry, C., (2004). Mental imagery in sport. In T. Morris and J. Summers (EDs. ). Sport psychology:theory, applications and issues (2nd Ed., pp ). Queensland, Australia: Wiley. Munroe, K., Giacobbi, P., Hall, C., & Weinberg, R. (2000). The 4 W s of imagery use: Where, when, why and what. The Sport Psychologist, 14, Murphy, S., (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, Murphy, S.M., Fleck, S.J., Dudley, G., & Callister, R. (1990). Psychological and performance concomitants of increased volume training in athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2, Murphy, S., Jowdy, D., & Durtschi, S. (1990). Report on the U.S. Olympic Committee survey on imagery use in sport. Colorado Springs, CO: U.S. Olympic Training Center. Murphy, S., & Martin, K. (2002). The use of imagery in sport. In T. Horn (Ed.) Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed., pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Ømosegaard, B., (1996). Physical Training for Badminton. Viborg: International Badminton Federation. Orlick, T., Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence, The Sports Psychologist, 2, Orlick, T. (1990). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, Partington, E. & Partington, S. (2005). Mental Skills: A Guide for Badminton Coaches. Milton Keynes, England, Badminton England. Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (1995). Human motor development: A lifespan approach (3rd edition). Mountain View, USA, Mayfield. Piaget, J, and Inhelder, B. (1971). Mental Imagery in the Child. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

27 25 Rodgers, W., Hall, CR & Buckholtz, E. (1991). The effect of an imagery training program on imagery ability, imagery use, and figure skating performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3, Shambrook, C., & Bull, (1999). Adherence to psychological preparation in sport. In S.J. Bull (ed.) Adherence issues in sport and exercise (pp ). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Simons, J. (2000). Doing imagery in the field. In Doing sports psychology (p ). Champaign, USA, Human Kinetics. Tarshis, B. (1977). Tennis and the mind. New York:Tennis Magazine. Vealey, R., & Walter, S. (1993). Imagery training for performance enhancement and personal development. In J. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to physical performance (2nd ed., pp ). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Weinberg, R.S. & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics. Weinberg, R.S., & Williams, J. (2001) Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In J. Williams (ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (4th ed., pp ). Mountain View, USA, Mayfield.

28 26 Appendix 1: The questionnaire What is imagery? You have probably heard different terms refering to an athlete's mental preparation for competition, including visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, mental practice and imagery. All these terms refer to creating or recreating an experience in mind. Statistical data Gender: female male Age (years): Sports level: 1. International level 2. National level 3. Regional/club level Have you had any training in imagery? yes no In which situations have you used imagery? Sports Imagery Questionnaire Training a skill Preparing a game plan for a match Motivating yourself (e.g. imagining winning a medal) Controlling your emotional state (e.g. relaxing by imagining a quiet place) Read the following descriptions of four general sports situations. For each one, imagine the situation and provide as much detail from your imagination as possible (using all the sensory abilities - seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling) to make the image as real as you can. Think of a specific example of the situation (e.g. the skill, the people involved, the place, the time). Now close your eyes and take a few deep breaths to become as relaxed as you can. Put aside all your thoughts. Keep your eyes closed for about 1 minute as you try to imagine the situation as vividly as you can. Your accurate appraisal of your images will help you determine which exercises to emphasize in the basic training exercises. After you have completed imagining each situation, rate the four dimensions of imagery by selecting the number that best describes the image you had: 1 = no image present 2 = not clear or vivid, but a recognizable image 3 = moderately clear and vivid image 4 = clear and vivid image 5 = extremely clear and vivid image

29 27 1. Practicing alone Select a specific skill, such as hitting a smash or a backhand clear. Now imagine yourself performing this skill at a place where you normally practice, without anyone else present. Close your eyes for about 1 minute and try to see yourself at this place, hear the sounds, feel your body perform the movement, and be aware of your state of mind or mood. a) How vividly did you see yourself doing this activity? b) How clearly did you hear the sounds of doing this activity? c) How well did you feel yourself making the movements? d) How clearly were you aware of your mood? Practicing with others You are doing the same activity, but now you are practicing the skill with your coach and your fellow players present. This time, however, you make a mistake that everyone notices. a) How vividly did you see yourself doing this activity? b) How clearly did you hear the sounds of doing this activity? c) How well did you feel yourself making the movements? d) How clearly were you aware of your mood? Watching a fellow player Think of a fellow player performing a specific skill unsuccesfully in competition, such as serving in the net or smashing wide. a) How vividly did you see yourself doing this activity? b) How clearly did you hear the sounds of doing this activity? c) How well did you feel yourself making the movements? d) How clearly were you aware of your mood? Playing in a contest Imagine yourself performing in a competition. You are performing very skillfully, and the spectators and fellow players are showing their appreciation. a) How vividly did you see yourself doing this activity? b) How clearly did you hear the sounds of doing this activity? c) How well did you feel yourself making the movements? d) How clearly were you aware of your mood?

30 Free word (optional) - You can also write in Finnish How do you view imagery? Do you think it has helped/could help you improve your performance in badminton? 28 Any additional comments? Please return the completed questionnaire to the box on the table in A1 or any of the badminton guys...