Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Study

Transcription

1 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 135 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: Li-Wen Hsieh Department of Recreational Sport Management National Taipei University Chien-Hsin Wang Department of Recreational Sports National Taiwan College of Physical Education Tracy Wisdom Yoder Department of Research and Statistics Running USA ABSTRACT Sports are very much a part of global markets. This study compares the underlying differences of professional baseball consumption behaviors between two distinct cultures, the United States (US) and Taiwan. Previous studies have indicated that sporting event consumption is influenced by sport fans identity or team identification, sport consumption motivation, the influence of social agents, and some demographic variables. However, there is still a lack of integration of the aforementioned factors, and our understanding on cultural differences is relatively sparse when explaining sporting event consumption behaviors. In the current study, data were collected from questionnaires sent to residents in one US and one Taiwanese city. The authors used independent t-tests, stepwise multiple-regression analyses, and path analyses to explore the cultural differences in sport consumption. The comparison results indicated that the Taiwanese tend to watch more professional baseball games on television and have higher levels of identification as a baseball fan, rather than as the fan of one particular team. Family influence on sport consumption was found to be particularly important for people in the US, whereas escape motive and gender were found to be important for the Taiwanese. Keywords: Sport consumption, sport fan identification, spectator motivation, social influence

2 136 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: 1. INTRODUCTION Sports have become a prominent part of the global contemporary consumption phenomenon. One sports event may drive the growth of an extensive number of related businesses, such as sports products and souvenirs, the media, commercials, and sponsorships. The sports industry is so exuberant that, in the United States (US) alone, it is estimated at US$441.1 billion [Plunkett, 2008]. The merit of sports events is that millions of sports fans, or consumers, are brought together through live attendance and television (TV) broadcasting. For instance, 3 million spectators came to stadiums to watch the 2006 World Cup, and 26.3 million people watched the game on TV, generating around US$25 million in ticket revenues and US$1,380 million in TV broadcast rights revenues [Fifty-Seventh FIFA Congress, 2007]. Global strategies have been considered by many sports organizations, which were originally domestically based. Baseball, rated as the second most popular sport after US football [Statistical Abstract of the US, 2010], is one of the many US team sports that have potential global market benefits. Consequently, major league baseball (MLB) pays great attention to the markets of baseball-rich countries in Latin America and Asia [Riper, 2005]. Can we assume, however, that the US sports business model suits consumers in other cultures? To date, our knowledge about different sport consumption behaviors in various cultures or countries is relatively sparse. More investigation is needed, particularly for sports marketers who strive to maximize their organizations business dollars. In Taiwan, where baseball is almost as popular as it is in the US, it is deemed as a potential target market for MLB. Taiwan s domestic professional baseball league, the Chinese Professional Baseball League (CPBL), was established in 1990, and, each year, approximately 1 million Taiwanese attend CPBL games and an estimated 2.6 million watch the games on TV [Chinese Professional Baseball League, 2010; ESPN Star, 2009]. The value of the current study is to illustrate the underlying differences in professional baseball consumption behaviors between two distinct populations, the US spectators for MLB and the Taiwanese for CPBL. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW This section presents information from the literature on the sports consumption model and cross-cultural studies on sports spectators Sports Consumption Model Previous studies on sports consumption in the US have focused on attendance at sporting events. In particular, the interests of early researchers focused on predicting overall attendance at sporting events; a number of these studies have been conducted since 1969 [Bird, 1982; DeSchriver, 1999; Jones, 1969; Scully, 1974; Wells, Southall, and Peng, 2000]. Over the last ten years, the number of studies focusing on individuals psychological factors for attending International Journal of Business and Information

3 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 137 sports events have grown in the sports marketing field [Funk, Filo, Beaton, and Pritchard, 2009; Funk, Mahony, and Ridinger, 2002; Kim and Trail, 2010; Trail and James, 2001]. More specifically, the mainstream began a few decades ago to comprehensively understand fan identification and spectator motivation [Trail and James, 2001; Wann, 1995]. The professional baseball consumption model in the current study is established using the aforementioned perspectives Sports Fan Identification Sports fan identification is an important factor of spectator consumption behavior. According to social identity theory [Tajfel, 1982], an individual s identity to his/her in-group influences his/her group-supportive behaviors. Therefore, a fan s level of connection to a team, or a sport, may influence that person s consumption decision. There are two fashions in measuring sports fan identification. Some research measures team identity, which indicates the extent to which a fan feels psychologically connected to a team [Fisher and Wakefield, 1998; Wakefield, 1995; Wann and Branscombe, 1993]. Other studies are related to sports fandom identity, which measures a person s identification with his or her role as a sports fan [Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End, and Jacquemotte, 2000; Wann, 2002]. Sports fan identification has been used to explain fan group-supportive behaviors, especially attendance. Research has found that those who identify strongly with their team attend more games and predict more future success for their team [Murrell and Dietz, 1992; Wann and Dolan, 1994]. Moreover, Fisher and Wakefield [1998] found that fan identification significantly explains three group-supportive behaviors: game behaviors, purchases of licensed products, and attendance. Studies [Armstrong, 2007; Kim and Trail, 2010; Laverie and Arnett, 2000; Swanson, Gwinner, Larson, and Janda, 2003; Trail, Fink, and Anderson, 2003; Wakefield, 1995; Wakefield and Sloan, 1995] that use fan identification to explain attendance show that sports fan identification normally explains 10% to 30% of the variance in spectator behaviors in attending games. H1: The degree of a person s fan identification positively influences the extent of his/her professional baseball consumption Spectator Motivation Motivationally oriented psychologists like to look inside the person for his/her desires; they assume that the person is an active participant with needs, desires, hopes, and fears [Pittman, 1998]. Psychological needs for sports spectator consumption have been studied for many years [Gantz and Wenner, 1995; Pan, Gabert, McGaugh, and Branvold, 1997; Sloan, 1989; Wann and Wilson, 1999; Weiller and Higgs, 1997]. Scales measuring sports fan or spectator motives have also been developed and proposed [Funk et al., 2002; Kahle, Kambara, and Rose, 1996; Milne and McDonald, 1999; Trail and James, 2001; Wann, 1995; Zhang et al., 2001]. In spite of different scales, spectator motives

4 138 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: can be basically categorized into nine types: self-esteem/vicarious achievement, entertainment, group affiliation, family, aesthetics, eustress/drama, escape, knowledge acquisition, and economics [Trail and James, 2001; Wann, 1995]. A positive correlation has been found between spectator motivation and fan identification [Gantz and Wenner, 1995; Trail and James, 2001; Wann, 1995; Wann, Royalty, and Rochelle, 2002]. Among spectator motives, some illustrated potentially significant attributions for explaining sports consumption behaviors. These include: interest in the sport or team [Funk et al., 2002], acquisition of knowledge [Trail and James, 2001; Zhang, Smith, Pease, and Mahar, 1996], achievement seeking [Funk et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2001], entertainment or aesthetics [Funk et al., 2002; Trail and James, 2001; Zhang et al., 2001], salubrious effects or escape [Zhang et al., 2001], physical skills (Trail and James, 2001], and role models [Funk et al., 2002]. Four studies showed that overall spectator motivation can explain 10% to 32% of the variance in spectator attendance [Funk et al., 2009; Kahle et al., 1996; Trail and James, 2001; Zhang et al., 2001]. One study revealed that 40% of the variance in sports media consumption was composed of spectator motivation [Andrew, Kim, O Neal, Greenwell, and James, 2009]. Spectator motivation was also found to be an important factor of fan identification, contributing to 50% to 70% of the explained variance [Funk et al., 2009; Judson and Carpenter, 2005; Trail et al., 2003; Woo, Trail, Kwon, and Anderson, 2009]. H2a: The degree of a person s spectator motives positively influences the extent of his/her professional baseball consumption. H2b: The degree of a person s spectator motives positively influences the extent of his/her sports fan identifications Influence of Social Agents Bandura and Walters [1963] suggested that people are active learners who observe and imitate others; their attitudes and behaviors are influenced by the people surrounding them, especially those with whom they have a strong relationship. The influence of socialization agents, such as family, peers, school, and community, has been widely researched in sports. Family and peers were found to be the most influential socialization agents for sports consumption [McPherson, 1976; Wakefield, 1995; Wann, Tucker, and Schrader, 1996; Weiller and Higgs, 1997). Wakefield s study [1995] illustrates that social agents should have a direct influence on sports spectator identification, perceived values of events, and perceived community acceptance. As such, it indirectly impacts sports consumption behavior. H3a: The degree of a person s social influence on watching baseball games positively influences the extent of his/her professional baseball consumption. International Journal of Business and Information

5 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 139 H3b: The degree of a person s social influence on watching baseball games positively influences the extent of his/her sports fan identifications Demographic Variables Related to Sports Event Consumption Watching sports involves an investment of time, energy, and money. Sports spectators need to decide whether a sports event is valuable enough to invest their resources. Generally, researchers organize determinants of event attendance into four categories: economics, socio-demographics, attractiveness of games, and residual preferences such as weather, convenience, and special promotion activities [Boyd and Krehbiel, 1999; Bird, 1982; DeSchriver, 1999; Rivers and DeSchriver, 2002]. Factors such as ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, TV effect, travel distance, and other sports attractions in the area may have a negative influence on sports consumption. Research on spectator attendance reveals that differences in ethnic populations, gender, age, and socioeconomic status may influence sports event consumption, as well as sports fan identification [Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Murrell and Dietz, 1992; Pan et al., 1997]. In addition, people who are male, young adults, and have higher household incomes tend to be highly identified fans and consume more sports events. H4a: Demographic variables are associated with the extent of a person s professional baseball consumption. H4b: Demographic variables are associated with the extent of a person s sports fan identifications. Based on the literature review, Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual model of professional baseball consumption that was used in the current study to investigate underlying differences between the US and Taiwanese cultures. Spectator Motivation 1. Achievement 2. Aesthetic 3. Drama 4. Escape 5. Knowledge 6. Physical Skill 7. Social Affiliation Professional Baseball Consumption 1. Games Attended 2. Games Watched on TV Influence of Social Agents 1. Family Influence 2. Peer Influence Background Variable 1. Gender 2. Age 3. Education 4. Income 5. Marriage 6. Distance to Ballpark Sport Fan Identification 1. Team Identification 2. Baseball Fandom Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Professional Baseball Consumption

6 140 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: 2.2. Cross-Cultural Studies of Sports Spectators Cross-cultural studies of sports spectators are still relatively few. In the current study, the cultural value of individualism-collectivism is the main vehicle used to analyze and compare Eastern and Western sports spectators. According to Hofstede [2001], the US represents a culture of individualism where people tend to initiate behaviors independently of others, whereas Taiwan is more of a collectivistic society where people live close together among a number of relatives and tend to think of themselves as part of a we group. Cultural differences may play a crucial role in sports consumption behaviors. Spectators from a more individualistic society may have higher levels of sports team identification than those from a more collectivistic one. A study showed that US youths exhibit higher levels of team identification than their Greek and Korean peers [Dalakas and Kropp, 2002]. Another study found that US participants, when compared with those in Taiwan and Korea, not only have higher levels of team identification but also demonstrate a stronger relationship between their team identification and spectator sports attitudes [Gau and Kim, 2011]. Cultural differences in baseball fan socialization processes, known as ritualizations, have been discussed by Chun, Gentry, and McGinnis [2004]. In particular, Chun and colleagues hypothesized that, for a more individualistic culture like the US, fans tend to adhere to more self-disciplined rules, self-expressive aspects of symbolic performance, rural and pre-industrial aspects of traditionalism in baseball fan rituals, and close social groups (e.g., family or friends) as influential specialists. For a more collectivistic society like Japan, however, fans are likely to adhere to more group-disciplined rules, collective-expressive aspects of symbolic performance, modernization aspects of traditionalism in baseball fan rituals, and socially authorized groups (e.g., media or supporters) as influential specialists. 3. METHODOLOGY The section discusses the methodology of the current study with regard to participants, measures, and statistical analysis Participants The participants in this study were selected from two cities, one in the US and one in Taiwan. A total of 2,000 questionnaires were distributed by local marketing companies to mailboxes of residents living within a 50-mile radius of the local professional baseball ballparks. There were 281 US survey replies (a 14.1% response rate), 213 of which were valid in the data analysis. Because of the initial low response rate (2.8%) in Taiwan, a convenience sampling method was used, in which 30 volunteers from selected and representative local companies or organizations helped distribute questionnaires at their workplaces. Eventually, 202 valid Taiwanese respondents were used in this study. International Journal of Business and Information

7 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder Measures The English version of the questionnaire used in this study includes instruments that were adopted from previous US studies. In order to conduct a cross-cultural comparison, the authors developed a Chinese version of the questionnaire. Content validity was ensured via a five-member Taiwanese expert panel and a back-translation method. Both the English and Chinese versions of the questionnaires consisted of five major parts, with a total of 44 items. Demographics. Demographic information in the study included gender, age, education, marital status, annual income, and travel time to city ballparks. Sport Consumption. The concept of spectators direct and indirect sports consumption behaviors was adopted in the current study [McPherson, 1976; Mullin, Hardy, and Sutton, 2000]. Two 7-choice items were designed to help recall numbers in the previous year of direct consumption by games attended, as well as numbers of indirect consumption by games watched on TV. Sport Fan Identification. Two facets of spectator identification were measured. First, the modified 4-item Sports Spectator Identification Scale [SSIS; Wann and Branscombe, 1993] was used to assess participants identification with a particular baseball team. Second, Wann s (2002] 5-item Sports Fandom Questionnaire (SFQ) was used to assess participants identities as baseball fans. The measurements were both rated by a 6-point scale. Influence of Social Agents. A 7-point scale of the social agent s influence on sport spectators was modified from the measurement of Perceived Reference Group Acceptance in Wakefield s [1995] study. Influences of family and peers were tracked as two separate sub-scales (three items for each). Family influence indicates the involvement level of an individual s family in consuming baseball games. Peer influence indicates the involvement level of an individual s friends in consuming baseball games. Spectator Motivation. Participants evaluated their spectator motivation via the modified 21-item Motivation Scale for Sports Consumption [MSSC; modified version, Trail et al., 2003]. The Chinese version of the MSSC used in this study was validated in previous research [Hsieh and Wu, 2009]. A 5-point scale was used to measure seven motives (three items for each). Achievement is the extent to which an individual watches games because of a heightened sense of self-esteem when the team wins. Aesthetics is the extent to which an individual watches games because of the enjoyment of the artistic beauty and grace of the sport. Drama is the extent to which an individual watches games because of the excitement and suspense of the competition. Escape is the extent to which an individual watches games because it provides a diversion from the rest of his or her life. Knowledge is the extent to which an individual watches games because of the interests of sports-related knowledge and strategies. Physical skill is the extent to which an individual watches games because of the players sports skills. Social affiliation is the extent to which an individual watches games because it provides an opportunity to interact with other fans.

8 142 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: 3.3. Statistical Analysis To evaluate the measurement models, the authors performed three separate confirmatory factor analyses for identification, the influence of social agents, and motivation, using LISREL Descriptive statistics were used to better understand the general differences of participant characteristics between the two cultures. Chi-square and independent t analyses were used to compare differences in demographic and psychological variables between the two cultures. Stepwise multiple regression analyses, using SPSS 12.0, were performed to explore important indicators for sports consumption and identification. Last, a 2-group path analysis using LISREL 8.52 was used to examine the differences of the underlying relationships on sport consumption between the two cultures. The coefficients from the common metric standardized solutions were examined for ensuring the comparability of the results from the two cultures. 4. RESULTS This section presents study results relating to measurement examination, descriptive statistics, preliminary analysis, and model comparison Measurement Examination The model fit indices for the confirmatory factor analyses illustrated acceptable model fits for all measurements; hence, the construct validity was met (Table 1). Further examination indicated that factor loadings of the measurements were all significant (ps <0.05) and convergent validity was met [Anderson and Gerbing, 1988]. Internal consistency reliabilities were adequate for Cronbach s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.79 to The AVE scores ranged from 0.54 to 0.82, indicating good construct reliabilities (Table 2). Table 1 Fit Indices for the Measurement Models Model χ 2 (df) SRMR CFI NNFI RMSEA (90% CI) Identification (20) ( ) Influence of Social Agent (6) ( ) Motivation (165) ( ) Note: SRMR=Standardized Root Mean Square Residual; CFI=Comparative Fit Index ; NNFI=Non-Normed Fit Index; RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation International Journal of Business and Information

9 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 143 Table 2 Factor Loadings and Reliability Statistics for the Measurement Models Measurement, Factor, and Item β α AVE Identification Team Identification How important to you is it that the [Team] win? 0.92 How strongly do you see yourself as a fan of the [Team]? 0.92 How strongly do your friends see you as a fan of the [Team]? 0.91 During the season, how closely do you follow the [Team] via any of the following: in person, on the radio or on TV, or news or a newspaper? 0.86 Baseball Fandom I consider myself to be a baseball fan I believe that following baseball is the most enjoyable form of entertainment My friends see me as a baseball fan Team Identification My life would be less enjoyable if I were not allowed to follow baseball Being a baseball fan is very important to me Influence of Social Agent Family influence How often does your family watch professional baseball games? 0.64 In my family, going to a [Team] game is: (unpopular-popular) 0.86 In my family, going to a [Team] game is: (unimportant-important) 0.95 Peer influence How often do your closest friends watch professional baseball games? 0.59 Among my friends, going to a [Team] game is: (unpopular-popular) Among my friends, going to a [Team] game is: (unimportant-important) Motivation Achievement I feel a personal sense of achievement when the team does well I feel like I have won when the team wins I feel proud when the team plays well. 0.88

10 144 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: Measurement, Factor, and Item β α AVE Motivation (Cont d) Aesthetics I enjoy the natural beauty in the game of baseball 0.88 I enjoy the gracefulness associated with the game of baseball Drama I enjoy the drama of close games I prefer watching a close game rather than a one-sided game I enjoy it when the outcome is not decided until the very end Escape The game provides an escape for me from my day-to-day routine Going to the game is a change of pace from what I regularly do Knowledge I increase my knowledge about baseball at the game I increase my understanding of baseball strategy by watching the game I can learn about the technical aspects of baseball by watching the game Physical skill The athletic skills of the players are something I appreciate I enjoy watching a well-executed athletic performance I enjoy a skillful performance by the team Social affiliation I enjoy interacting with other spectators at the game I enjoy talking with others at the game I enjoy socializing with people sitting near me at the game Descriptive Statistics Demographic profiles comprising gender, age, marriage, education, and travel time to ballparks were established for both cultures. Among the US participants, 74% were male, 84% were over 41 years old, 73% were married, and 78% had a college or advanced degree. Among the Taiwanese participants, 47% were male, 78% were over 51 years old, 52% were married, and 83% had a college or advanced degree. Significant differences were found in all demographic variables, except education, between participants in the two cultures (Table 3). International Journal of Business and Information

11 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 145 There were no significant differences between the two cultures for games attended, family influence, aesthetic motive, drama motive, escape motive, and social affiliation motive (Table 3). Taiwanese participants tended to have higher scores for games watched on TV, baseball identification, peer influence, achievement motives, and knowledge motives. The US participants had higher scores for team identification and physical skill motives (Table 3). Correlations of professional baseball consumption, identification, social agent influence, and motivation ranged from 0.24 to 0.80 (Table 4). Table 3 Descriptive Statistics by Culture Taiwan (N=202) US (N=213) Total (N=415) Variables M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) p Gender (Male) 95 (47.0) 155 (73.8) 250 (60.2) <0.001 Age <0.001 <30 5 (2.5) 19 (8.9) 24 (5.8) (2.5) 38 (17.8) 43 (10.4) (16.8) 61 (28.6) 95 (22.9) (52.0) 70 (32.9) 175 (42.2) >65 53 (26.2) 25 (11.7) 78 (18.8) Education High school/ below 35 (17.3) 48 (22.5) 83 (20.0) College 114 (56.4) 102 (47.9) 216 (52.0) Advanced degree 53 (26.2) 63 (29.6) 116 (28.0) Marriage (single) 96 (47.5) 58 (27.2) 154 (37.1) <0.001 Income <0.001 I1 46 (22.8) 9 (4.2) 55 (13.3) I2 36 (17.8) 59 (27.7) 95 (22.9) I3 60 (29.7) 78 (36.6) 138 (33.3) I4 60 (29.7) 67 (31.5) 127 (30.6) Distance to Ballpark <0.001 D1 43 (21.3) 94 (44.1) 137 (33.0) D2 110 (54.5) 89 (41.8) 199 (48.0) D3 49 (24.3) 30 (14.1) 79 (19.0) Games Attended a 1.61 (1.34) 1.80 (0.89) 1.71 (1.13) Games Watched on TV a 3.65 (2.34) 3.04 (2.01) 3.34(2.20) Team Identification b 2.45 (1.46) 2.74 (1.28) 2.60 (1.38) Baseball Fandom b 2.76 (1.37) 2.47 (1.32) 2.61 (1.35) Family Influence a 2.90 (1.64) 2.83 (1.62) 2.86 (1.63) Cont d

12 146 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: Table 3 (Cont d) Taiwan US Total (N=202) (N=213) (N=415) Variables M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) p Peer Influence a 3.64 (1.51) 3.29 (1.53) 3.46 (1.53) Achievement Motive c 3.51 (1.07) 2.63 (1.67) 3.06 (1.21) <0.001 Aesthetic Motive c 3.12 (1.00) 3.19 (1.10) 3.16 (1.05) Drama Motive c 3.63 (1.01) 3.68 (1.02) 3.66 (1.01) Escape Motive c 2.76 (0.96) 2.88 (1.06) 2.82 (1.02) Knowledge Motive c 3.38 (1.02) 2.79 (1.09) 3.07 (1.09) <0.001 Physical Skill Motive c 3.21 (1.04) 3.56 (1.07) 3.39 (1.07) Social Affiliation Motive c 2.82 (0.91) 2.77 (1.06) 2.80 (0.99) NOTES: Because of economic and geographic differences, income and travel time to the ballpark for the two countries were based on different categories. I1 through I4 represents annual income: Taiwan US I1 <$8.5K <$20K I2 $8.6K - $12.7K $20K - $60K I3 $12.7K - $21.2K $60.1K - $100K I4 >$21.2K >$100K D1 through D3 represents minutes spent traveling to ballpark: Taiwan US D1 <10 <30 D D3 >30 >50 a 7-point scale b 6-point scale c 5-point scale 4.3. Preliminary Analysis The multiple regression analysis is easily biased with data not meeting the requirements of certain statistical assumptions. Thus, before conducting the multiple-regression analysis, the authors examined assumptions of normality, linearity, homoskedasticity, collinearity, and the outliers [Tabachnick and Fidell, 2000]. All variables, except professional baseball consumption, were found to be normally distributed for the scores of skewness and kurtosis, within the range of ±3.0. After the logarithmic treatment of professional baseball consumption, a normal distribution was met for both games attended and games watched on TV (skewness = 1.02 and -0.7, respectively; and kurtosis = 0.17 and -1.37). International Journal of Business and Information

13 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 147

14 148 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: The residual plot showed that the errors of prediction and the predicted scores were normally distributed, equally spread and almost not correlated, which indicated meeting the requirements of normality, homoskedasticity, and linearity assumptions. The highest and lowest standardized score for all variables were within the range of ±3.29, suggesting the cut-off values for the potential outliers [Tabachnick and Fidell, 2000]). No VIF value exceeded 10.0, illustrating that the collinearity assumption was not violated. For the demographic variables, gender and marriage were dummy-coded; the others were treated as ordinal variables Model Comparison Ten important indicators were determined through a stepwise multiple-regression analysis to predict games attended, games watched on TV, team identification, and baseball fandom. The indicators were: Family influence Achievement motive Aesthetic motive Escape motive Knowledge motive Social affiliation motive Gender Age Marital status Travel time A two-group path model was analyzed to investigate direct, as well as indirect, effects from the aforementioned indicators. Non-significant paths were removed separately from the two cultures model. Eventually, the regression coefficients were all significant and the data fit with the determined model, χ 2 (151) = 76.09, p > Figures 2 and 3 are the professional baseball consumption models determined for the Taiwanese and Americans, respectively. For the explained variance of games attended, the US model (R 2 = 0.41) was better than the Taiwanese (R 2 = 0.25), but for the explained variance of team identification, the Taiwanese model (R 2 = 0.87) was better than the US (R 2 = 0.67). The explained variances of games watched on TV (the Taiwanese s R 2 = 0.61; the American s R 2 = 0.64), and baseball fandom (Taiwanese s R 2 = 0.68; American s R 2 = 0.66) were relatively close between the two cultures (Table 5). Test of H1: Sport fan identification predicted professional baseball consumption. Similar tendencies were found for both cultures. Games attended were predicted directly only by team identification but not baseball fandom; and, games watched on TV were predicted by team identification as well as by baseball fandom (Figures 2 and 3). Team identification was relatively important, compared with baseball fandom to predict games attended at ballparks; however, baseball fandom was relatively important to predict games watched on TV (Table 5). International Journal of Business and Information

15 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 149 Travel Male Single Age Family Influence Knowledge Motive Social Affiliation Motive Escape Motive Aesthetic Motive Games Attended Games Watched 0.40 Team Identification Baseball Fandom 0.48 Contribution to χ 2 = (47.21%), SRMR = 0.026, GFI = 0.97 Figure 2. Path Model for Professional Baseball Consumption in Taiwan Age Male Family Influence Achievement Motive Aesthetic Motive Escape Motive Games Attended Games Watched 0.55 Team Identification Baseball Fandom 0.37 Contribution to χ 2 = (52.79%), SRMR = 0.028, GFI = 0.97 Figure 3. Path Model for Professional Baseball Consumption in the US

16 150 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: International Journal of Business and Information

17 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 151 Test of H2a: Direct influences of spectator motivation to games attended were not found; however, the significantly direct influences of games watched on TV were found in the achievement motive for Americans (Figure 3) and in the knowledge motive for the Taiwanese (Figure 2). The indirect effects of spectator motives were found in professional baseball consumption; slight differences were illustrated between cultures, where achievement and aesthetic motives were significant for the Americans and aesthetic and escape motives were significant for the Taiwanese (Table 6). Test of H2b: In the Taiwanese model, the social affiliation motive was the only motive showing a significant influence on team identification. Social affiliation, aesthetic, and escape motives illustrated direct effects on baseball fandom (Figure 2), as well as indirect ones for team identification (Table 6). In the US model, there was no direct spectator motive influence for team identification, but there was for baseball fandom (Figure 3). Indirect effects were found to be significant in achievement and aesthetic motives for team identification (Table 6). Test of H3a: In both cultures, only family influence was found to be significant in predicting professional baseball consumption. For the Taiwanese, no direct effect was found for professional baseball consumption (Figure 2), but indirect effects existed (Table 6). For the Americans, the effect of family influence was illustrated only for games attended (Figure 3); indirect effects existed for professional baseball consumption (Table 6). The impact of family influence on professional baseball consumption in the US model was much stronger than in the Taiwanese model (Table 5). Test of H3b: In both cultures, the direct effects of family influence were found in both sport fan identifications (Figures 2 and 3) and saw indirect effects in team identification (Table 6). The impact of family influence on sport fan identification in the US model was much stronger than in the Taiwanese model (Table 5). Test of H4a: For the Taiwanese, travel time was found to be a direct determinant of games attended and gender of games watched on TV (Figure 2); additionally, gender, marital status, and age had indirect effects on professional baseball consumption (Table 6). For the Americans, age had a direct effect on games attended; no demographic variables had a direct effect on games watched on TV (Figure 3); however, gender had indirect effects on professional baseball consumption (Table 6). Gender and travel time played relatively important roles in the Taiwanese model; whereas age played a more important role in the US model (Table 5). Test of H4b: In both cultures, gender had a direct effect on two sport fan identifications. No other direct effect was found from the demographic variables for the Americans (Figure 3), but was found in marital status for team identification and age for baseball fandom for the Taiwanese (Figure 2). Gender played a relatively important role in the Taiwanese model (Table 5).

18 152 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: International Journal of Business and Information

19 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS This section presents study findings and discussion, describes the implications of the current study, and offers recommendations for future research on this topic Findings and Discussion The present research study provides a basic understanding about the differences in professional baseball consumption behaviors between two distinct cultures. In Taiwan, people are more likely to watch professional baseball games on TV than are people in the US. The number of professional baseball games attended at ballparks is not significantly different between the two cultures. One possible explanation is that the sports channels in the US usually have a variety of sports and events to broadcast; however, the channels in Taiwan replay (sometimes even two or three times) every broadcasted professional baseball game to fill their schedules. This repetition increases the chance of watching baseball games on TV by accident. The mean differences of identification illustrate two opposite directions between the two cultures, where the Taiwanese participants had a higher mean score on baseball identification and the US participants had a higher score on team identification. Differences of baseball sport environments between the two cultures may explain the findings. First, the Taiwanese have a strong and special connection, almost exclusively, with the sport of baseball in relation to the nation s history, with good records in world standard competitions for baseball. In the US, baseball may not be the only sport that draws attention, as there are a variety of popular sports, such as American football, basketball, ice hockey, and golf. All of these sports have substantial influences on Americans. This influence may result in higher baseball fandom for the Taiwanese. Second, a professional baseball team s home game system in Taiwan is not like in the US, where the home team has an exclusive right to a city s ballpark and particular influence on its citizens identity. In Taiwan, a nominated home team is responsible for promotion and owns all ticket revenues from a game. In the case of the Taiwanese city, residents may not easily identify with a specific team, because the whole league s teams take turns hosting home games in the city s ballpark, depending on the league s schedule, in order to ensure equal opportunities for sharing responsibilities and collecting ticket revenue. A basic and universal construct of the professional baseball consumption model was found in both cultures. Consistent with past studies [Armstrong, 2007; Kim and Trail, 2010; Swanson et al., 2003], the two models showed that a person s team identification is an important determinant of both direct and indirect professional baseball consumption. In addition, a person s baseball fandom can directly explain team identification and games watched on TV, as well as indirectly link team identification to professional baseball consumption. When comparing two kinds of identification, team identification plays a

20 154 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball Consumption: relatively important role in direct professional baseball consumption, whereas identifying as a baseball fan has more of an influence on indirect consumption. Some important cultural differences were found between the two professional baseball consumption models. First, the family s social influence was an essential factor in the US consumption model. On the other hand, family influence in the Taiwanese culture was not as important as that in the US. Our study supports Chun et al. s [2004] hypothetical idea that close social groups (e.g., family or friend groups) are more influential for baseball fans in a highly individualist society like the US. Second, the importance of spectator motivation was somewhat different between the two cultures. Although Andrew et al. [2009] illustrated that aesthetic and knowledge motives are determinants of media consumption for sport, the knowledge motive was found to have a significant effect only in the Taiwanese model. The achievement motive was found to be influential only in the US model, which supports the idea that people from collectivist cultures are less likely than people from individualist cultures to use favoring strategies (like supporting a winning team) to enhance their self-esteem (Heine and Lehman, 1997). In addition, for the Taiwanese, the escape motive was more important. Third, demographic variables, like gender, age, marital status, and travel distance to the ballpark, were found to be influential in the Taiwanese model; but, only gender and age were influential in the US model. Studies have shown that, for both US and Taiwanese sports spectators, males tend to demonstrate higher levels of sports-related psychological characteristics, such as team identity and spectating motivation, than females [Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Hsieh and Wu, 2009; Wann and Branscombe, 1993]. In the current study, however, we found that gender plays a more important role in the Taiwanese professional baseball consumption model than in the US model. A possible explanation is that, for an individualistic society like the US, people s tendency to adhere to self-disciplined rules and influences from boyfriends or husbands may encourage female spectators self-determination to be sports fans; whereas, in Taiwan, a more collectivistic country, the collective aspect that sports are men s entertainment may hinder female spectators self-determination from being fans. As a result, the discrepancy of levels of fan identity or numbers of games consumed between males and females in Taiwan may be higher than it is in the US Implications of Current Study Marketing strategies to build local citizens identity to a team has been discussed and promoted to increase attendance at baseball games [Lachowetz, Dees, Todd, and Ryan, 2009]. Therefore, the MLB has used a globalized strategy that is making extensive scouting efforts in East Asian countries (i.e., Japan, Korea, and Taiwan). Having more elite Asian players on the team has caused more identified Asian fans to watch MLB games [Cho, 2009; Kelly, 2007]. Nevertheless, this empirical study also found that the strategies of enhancing a International Journal of Business and Information

21 Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 155 person s love or identity with baseball is more important for the increasing consumption of professional baseball games than improving citizens identification to a team in Taiwan. One merit of this study is the historical relationship and similarities of language and culture between Taiwan and China. Expansion of MLB s markets to Asia, especially China, was considered [CBS Sportsline, 2006]. One possible strategy for MLB is to first penetrate the market in Taiwan, which is also relatively easy, because of the high extent of Taiwanese s identity with the sport of baseball. Family values associated with a baseball game have usually been used and promoted to increase consumption in the US; however, such a strategy may not be as important in the Taiwanese society as is the promotion of escape value. The female market for professional baseball games, especially in Taiwan, still needs to be evaluated and explored Limitations of Study and Recommendations for Future Research This study has shown similarities and differences in professional baseball consumption behaviors between the Taiwanese and US cultures. One limitation of the study is that participants were not randomly selected from the two societies because of limited resources, and this factor may have resulted in an unrepresentative sample of the general population of the US city and the Taiwanese city. Hence, one should be cautious when interpreting the findings of cultural differences beyond the city level, especially in the US, a nation with many cultures. In addition, one city cannot represent an entire nation. Furthermore, the sample in the study was composed of middle-aged and older participants; these results may not be suitable to generalize to the younger population. The discrepancy of demographic variables between participants of the two cultures may have led to influences on the study s findings. Despite these limitations, however, this study contributes to a basic understanding of the differences between two nations with respect to professional baseball. Further studies should investigate the generalizations of the current findings. A thorough and sophisticated sampling method may be used to obtain more data from diverse cultures that can be compared. Or, longitudinal data may be used so that researchers may understand more in-depth information on the issue. REFERENCES Anderson, J.C., and Gerbing, D.W Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach, Psychological Bulletin 103(3), Andrew, D.P.S.; Kim, S.; O Neal, N.; Greenwell, T.C.; and James, J.D The relationship between spectator motivations and media and merchandise consumption at a professional mixed martial arts event, Sport Marketing Quarterly 18,

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