ONLINE social networking (OSN) is an information technology

Transcription

1 654 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 59, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012 The Moderating Effects of Privacy Restrictiveness and Experience on Trusting Beliefs and Habit: An Empirical Test of Intention to Continue Using a Social Networking Website Nancy K. Lankton, D. Harrison McKnight, and Jason Bennett Thatcher Abstract While some online social networking (OSN) websites, such as Facebook, have reported sustained growth, others, such as Bebo, have not. This study investigates the factors that influence users intentions to continue using these websites. We adapt the theory of reasoned action and develop a model depicting how trusting beliefs, habit, attitude, and subjective norm lead to continuance intention. We propose that trusting beliefs and habit will have differential effects depending on the levels of privacy restrictiveness and site experience. An analysis of data collected from Facebook users shows that the effects of trusting beliefs on continuance intention diminish as OSN users become more experienced, yet, do not diminish when users set privacy controls high. The latter finding contradicts theory positing control and trusting beliefs are substitutes. The finding that the trusting belief-continuance intention relationship is not significant when experience is high demonstrates that trusting beliefs and experience interact. We also show that habit is a stronger predictor when users restrict their personal information. However, contrary to predictions, habit shapes intention among users with both high and low experience. These findings explain how habit and trusting beliefs predict continuance intention in the new OSN environment and have both practical and research implications. Index Terms Continuance intention, habit, privacy restrictiveness, social networking, trust. I. INTRODUCTION ONLINE social networking (OSN) is an information technology (IT) phenomenon that is experiencing meteoric growth. One major OSN website, Facebook.com, started in 2004 and grew to over 400 million active accounts worldwide as of June 2010 [1]. Also, a recent study reports that 46% of online users in the U.S. use OSN sites like Facebook or MySpace, and that four in ten people from other countries such as Great Manuscript received July 3, 2010; revised January 26, 2011, July 13, 2011, and October 26, 2011; accepted November 27, Date of publication January 18, 2012; date of current version October 16, Review of this manuscript was arranged by Department Editor T. Ravichandran. N. K. Lankton is with the College of Business, Marshall University, Huntington, WV USA ( nancyledu@yahoo.com). D. H. McKnight is with the Accounting and Information Systems, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA ( mcknight@bus.msu. edu). J. B. Thatcher is with the Department of Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC USA ( jthatch@clemson.edu). Digital Object Identifier /TEM Britain and South Korea use OSN websites [2]. These statistics suggest that OSN website use is a growing, pervasive, and global phenomenon. OSN sites are popular because they allow individuals to exchange digital information such as pictures, videos, and text. These sites enable people to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with common interests [3]. Individuals can: 1) construct a public or restricted profile; 2) create a list of those to whom they are connected; and 3) view and traverse their own and others connections [4, p. 211]. Some OSN sites also have programming interfaces that individuals can use to create applications [3]. Given OSN s tremendous growth and functionality, businesses can benefit by understanding why individuals develop intentions to continue using these websites. For example, by understanding continuance intention, service providers can become more efficient at providing networking services as the customer base increases, thereby achieving economies of scale [3]. Also, by understanding continuance intention other businesses can enhance online advertising, target specific demographics, and disseminate information and news. These actions can help businesses better attract customers and market products. Even if initially successful, continued OSN growth is not assured, with recent figures showing fluctuations in Facebook use [5] and shrinking growth for MySpace [6], [7]. In fact, some OSN sites, such as Friendster, have not experienced sustained growth [6]. Others, such as Bebo, have shrunk. When individuals abandon OSN websites, provider firms can lose revenue and experience declines in value. For example, AOL recently sold Bebo for a huge loss [8]. Because discontinuance happens, and it can be costly to providers, understanding individuals OSN continuance intention is important Hence, this paper examines factors that influence OSN continuance intention. Because to date research has a limited understanding of why individuals use OSN websites [4], we advance a theory of reasoned action (TRA)-based research model. It focuses on attitude (feelings of favorableness toward the behavior) and subjective norm (perceptions that most important others think one should perform the behavior) [9], in addition to trusting beliefs and habit, which are two salient continuance predictors. Trusting beliefs in the OSN website are beliefs that the website possesses three desirable attributes: integrity, /$ IEEE

2 LANKTON et al.: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PRIVACY RESTRICTIVENESS AND EXPERIENCE 655 competence, and benevolence [10], [11]. 1 Trusting beliefs are important to study because OSN websites involve security and privacy risks and trusting beliefs can help reduce these perceived risks. We also examine IT habit, which is defined as peoples tendency to use IT automatically because of learning [14, p. 705]. Habit is important in an OSN context because many people use websites, such as Facebook, on a daily basis. Habit s influence on OSN continuance intention remains an unresolved research question, with researchers calling for habit s inclusion in future OSN research [15]. Our model adds value to the OSN literature by being the first to examine how privacy restrictiveness and site experience moderate the effects of trusting beliefs and habit on OSN continuance intention. Privacy restrictiveness refers to a privacy control behavior that involves using vendor-provided privacy settings to restrict access to one s personal information. Site experience refers to the frequency and length of past OSN website usage. We address the question: Do privacy restrictiveness and site experience levels alter how well trusting beliefs and habit predict Facebook usage continuance intention? Moderators are important to study because they address organizational, individual, and technological contexts [16], and can also help identify a model s boundary conditions [14]. Although Benbasat and Barki [17] urged researchers to examine moderators to illuminate IT use, relatively little trust and habit research has done this (some exceptions include [18], [19]). II. BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES We use TRA, a generalized model for predicting and explaining behavior, as the theoretical basis for our study [9]. In TRA, behavior is predicted by intention, which in turn is predicted by attitude and subjective norm. TRA forms the basis for many important IT models that have advanced understanding of IT intention and use including the Technology Acceptance Model [20] and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [21]. TRA was recently used to predict the intention to use OSN sites [22]. This research s objective is not to test TRA per se, but instead to leverage TRA to advance our knowledge of continuance intention s predictors. Therefore, while we include attitude and subjective norm as antecedents to usage continuance intention, our study adds value by supplementing TRA with two additional predictors of OSN continuance intention (trusting beliefs and habit) and two moderators (privacy restrictiveness and site experience) (see Fig. 1). A. Attitude and Subjective Norm Consistent with TRA, we predict that attitude toward continuing to use the OSN website will influence continuance intention. Attitude is an evaluative or affect variable that predisposes one 1 In this study, we examine trusting beliefs [12], which are sometimes called factors of trustworthiness [10, p. 717]. We do not study trusting intention or trusting attitude (often called trust ), which is the willingness to depend on or be vulnerable to the other party [10], [11]. We use the term trust as a generic term that is used to refer to either a combination or subset of trusting intention and trusting beliefs [13]. Fig. 1. Research model. to the behavior. All else being equal, people will intend to perform a behavior if they have a positive affect toward it. In IT research, evidence is mixed on attitude s influence on intentions, partly because in some contexts it encompasses the beliefs that form it [12], [21]. However, it may be especially relevant in voluntary use contexts [21] and has recently been found to predict intention to use OSN websites [22]. H1: Attitude toward using the website will have a positive influence on usage continuance intention. Subjective norm s influence on intention represents a compliance effect in which individuals intend to use a website because they desire to strengthen relationships with others or at least avoid being rejected [21], [23]. Therefore, if an individual feels that important others think he/she should use a technology, he/she will be more likely to intend to use it regardless of other feelings and beliefs [20]. Others can include coworkers, family, friends, or peers. IT researchers find that subjective norm s relationship with intention is complex and may be contingent on a variety of factors that are beyond this research s scope [20], [21]. However, we believe that one s OSN continuance intention may be influenced by one s friends wanting one to use the site. Further, empirical work finds that subjective norm influences intentions for other online and web-related activities [24] [26]. H2: Subjective norm will have a positive influence on usage continuance intention. B. Trusting Beliefs and Habit While TRA predicts that beliefs influence intention through attitude, we follow previous research and predict that trusting beliefs will have a direct influence on continuance intention [18]. Trusting beliefs can encourage behavioral intention because they reduce complexity in social interactions by overriding beliefs that the trustee will behave in an opportunistic manner [18].

3 656 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 59, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012 In this way, trusting beliefs act as an evaluative mechanism that can help one deal with risk. OSN websites present privacy and security risks that can leave one vulnerable to reputation loss, identity theft, and even bodily harm. Hence, believing that the OSN website has desirable attributes can reduce one s felt risks and increase one s continuance intention. Prior research finding trusting beliefs influence intention to use e-commerce, interorganizational exchange, and OSN websites supports this prediction [3], [18], [27]. H3: Trusting beliefs will have a positive influence on usage continuance intention. Habit has been included in TRA-based use continuance models to account for IT-use behaviors that have become automatic [14], [28]. Habitual behavior does not require deliberate processing and instead results from nondeliberate (i.e., automatic) processing of stimulus cues [29]. For example, a person may stop for coffee every day on the way to work. Soon the individual may behave this way automatically just because they are going to work rather than because they have deliberately decided to stop. Habit theory supports a habit continuance intention relationship because habits can automatically trigger intention [29], [30], and previous habitual activities can create favorable feelings toward the behavior thereby increasing continuance intention [28], [31], [32]. Habit applies well to OSN use behavior and intention. Researchers find that college students Internet use is habitual [14]. Also, most Facebook users provide above-the-mean responses to habit questions like Facebook is part of my everyday activity and Facebook has become a part of my daily routine [33]. Researchers find that 60% of MySpace users and 55% of Facebook users access the site daily [34]. Since many OSN users behaviors may be habitual, we make habit a predictor of continuance intention. H4: Habit will have a positive influence on usage continuance intention. C. Privacy Restrictiveness Moderator Individuals have privacy to the extent that others have limited access to their information [35]. Privacy research has largely focused on individual concern for protecting personal information in response to organizations privacy practices [36]. For example, individuals may be concerned about firms collecting their personal information and using it for unauthorized purposes [37] [39]. While privacy concerns have long existed, the Web has exacerbated them by making it easier for data to be collected and shared [40]. Privacy concerns about OSN sites exist because unless users take action to restrict access to their profiles, anyone can view their postings, such as their real name, current address, and date of birth. OSN sites like Facebook allow users to restrict access both by who can see it (e.g., friends only) and by specific information type (e.g., date or year of birth). OSN website users tradeoff disclosing enough information to meet peers with similar interests against keeping themselves safe from unwanted attention [41]. OSN users appear to be aware of both the privacy issues and the option to restrict access. For example, one study finds that 69% of respondents thought strangers had looked at their Facebook profile [42], and another study finds that 66% of users limit profile access in some way [41]. Hence, privacy is a concern for OSN users. Two theoretical bases explain how, and why, people control personal information. First, the power-responsibility model posits that if firms have more power and are less responsible, consumers will take defensive actions [40]. Using this model, researchers find that consumers have greater privacy concerns and engage in more privacy control behaviors when they feel firms do not keep their information private [36], [40]. Second, the privacy calculus model posits that individuals are willing to expose themselves to some privacy loss as long as disclosing the information pays back [43]. Researchers empirically find that individual costs and benefits influence disclosure [38], [43]. 1) Trusting Beliefs and Privacy Restrictiveness: Research demonstrates that trusting beliefs influence privacy restrictiveness behavior. For example, the privacy calculus model supports the notion that, in general, individuals who have higher trusting beliefs are more willing to disclose information for e-commerce and OSN transactions [38], [43], [44]. This is because trusting beliefs can outweigh privacy concerns about disclosing information online. If individuals perceive the website is trustworthy, they will disclose information despite concern that the website may act opportunistically with their information. Without trusting beliefs, one might not disclose information due to privacy concerns [43]. Our study expands on this literature by examining whether the trusting belief continuance intention relationship is stronger or weaker once an individual becomes vulnerable by disclosing personal information. Trust theory discusses that trusting beliefs and control are substitutes because trusting beliefs allow people to psychologically feel they can control a situation [13], [45]. Control mechanisms to limit and monitor the other party s behavior are not needed in high-trust relationships, but are needed in low-trust relationships [46]. In our study, when individuals have disclosed information, they may feel they have less control over who can see and use their personal information, which leaves them more open to privacy violations and other opportunistic behaviors. This can make their trusting beliefs an important influence on their continuance intention. Trusting beliefs can help them set aside their fears related to these risks. However, if individuals restrict information, they may perceive more control over who can see and use their personal information, and thus, trusting beliefs will not be as important to their continuance intention decision. H5: Privacy restrictiveness will moderate the relationship between trusting beliefs and usage continuance intention, such that with high privacy restrictiveness, trusting beliefs will have a smaller positive influence on usage continuance intention than with low privacy restrictiveness. 2) Habit and Privacy Restrictiveness: To predict how restrictiveness will affect the habit continuance intention relation, we use the theoretical model of perceived control processes that describes how different levels of perceived control affect

4 LANKTON et al.: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PRIVACY RESTRICTIVENESS AND EXPERIENCE 657 automatic and deliberate processing [47]. 2 Deliberate processing means thoughtfully evaluating beliefs to form intentions. Individuals who perceive a gap between their control and the control that is necessary for a behavior will be motivated to engage in deliberate processing. Individuals who possess the control they need to perform a behavior are more likely to form intentions through a nondeliberate or automatic process. We apply this model to OSN and privacy restrictiveness. Individuals with high privacy restrictiveness behaviors may feel they have more control over using the website because they have fewer impediments to using the site (i.e., less concern about information privacy). They will have a smaller gap between the control they possess and the control they need to safely use the site, which will make habit s influence on continuance intention stronger. Individuals with less privacy restrictiveness will have a bigger gap between perceived and actual control, which will require more deliberate processing and make habit s influence on continuance intention weaker. H6: Privacy restrictiveness will moderate the relationship between habit and usage continuance intention, such that with high privacy restrictiveness, habit will have a larger positive influence on usage continuance intention than with low privacy restrictiveness. D. Site Experience Moderator Experience is gained by engaging in behaviors and seeing the consequences. Researchers generally agree that experience provides feedback that may change one s subsequent evaluations and beliefs about the behavior [28], [49]. Experience can also moderate (i.e., strengthen or weaken) various relationships in IT use models [21]. The moderating effect may depend on the other constructs in the model with some perceptions replacing others after one gains experience [18]. Little research to date has examined how experience affects OSN continuance intention. Initial work finds differences between OSN website users and nonusers [50]. Other work finds OSN use has moderating effects on self-esteem and life satisfaction [34]. These studies suggest OSN site experience may also moderate the factors that influence continuance intention. 1) Trusting Beliefs and Site Experience: Trust theory proposes that trusting belief levels increase with positive experiences because repeat interaction enhances each party s ability to predict the other s behavior [46]. Researchers find that antecedents like site experience are significant predictors of trusting beliefs [18]. However, we know less about how experience might alter the influence of trusting beliefs on continuance intention. To understand this moderating effect, we use research that examines how the influence of trusting beliefs on attitudes and behaviors in organizations differs based on a relationship s am- 2 Perceived control from the theoretical model of perceived control processes is the same construct used in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) [48] and refers to the perception that one possesses the personal resources, and is free from impediments, to perform a particular behavior [47]. While TPB explains that perceived control influences intention, the theoretical model of perceived control processes explains the type of processing (deliberate or automatic) that will occur when individuals have more/less control, making it useful for explaining the moderating effects of habit and privacy restrictiveness. biguity [51]. If cues that indicate one should behave in a particular manner are ambiguous, trusting beliefs will play a larger role in influencing attitudes and behaviors. One will rely on the trustworthiness of the other to guide behavior. If cues become stronger and more certain (i.e., less ambiguous), they will have a greater effect on attitudes and behavior and trusting beliefs will play a lesser role. Researchers suggest that experience is a cue that can reduce ambiguity [52]. Thus, it should reduce the impact of trusting beliefs on continuance intention. Holmes also reasons that the influence of trusting beliefs will decline with experience [45]. He suggests that as experience with another party increases, people become less concerned about security and risk issues. High experience individuals have confidence in the other s attachment to the relationship and have little need to monitor behavior for signs of trustworthiness. Trusting beliefs may have a weaker influence on behavioral intentions within these relationships. Empirical research shows how experience modifies the influence of trusting beliefs on intention. Zhang [19] finds that the influence of trust-promoting seals (that indicate the other s trustworthiness) on intention to buy is stronger for inexperienced than for experienced consumers. Gefen et al. [18] reports that the influence of trusting beliefs in a website on intentions to transact is higher for potential than for repeat customers. These studies imply that trusting beliefs are more influential for the inexperienced, than for the experienced, OSN user. H7: Site experience will moderate the relationship between trusting beliefs and usage continuance intention, such that with high site experience, trusting beliefs will have a smaller positive influence on usage continuance intention than with low site experience. 2) Habit and Site Experience: Experience s moderating role on the habit continuance intention relationship tells us under what conditions habit has a stronger influence. While prior research shows that experience has a direct influence on habit [14], no research to date examines the moderating effect. Dualprocess theories (see, e.g., [53]) from cognitive and social psychology provide the basis for evaluating this effect. These theories generally posit that automatic processing becomes stronger when an individual has more experience with the stimuli. For example, information processing theory assumes that considerable and consistent experience is a necessary condition for automatic processes [53]. Further, automatic processing is based on well-learned associations that have been built up over time [54]. Other dual process research including Devine s work on stereotyping and prejudice [55], Fazio s work on attitude and attitude change [56], and Sloman s work on reasoning [57] supports the notion that the association between a stimulus and behavior that is necessary to produce habitual behavior is strengthened by experience. Experience can thus act as a moderator or suppressor variable, such that when it is present (i.e., individuals have more experience), habit will be better formed and better able to exert a strong influence on continuance intention. When experience is not present (i.e., individuals have less experience), habit will be ill-formed, thereby exerting less influence on continuance intention.

5 658 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 59, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012 Habit may also have a stronger influence on continuance intention when experience is higher because more prior experience can lead to more situational stability and satisfactory outcomes, which can lead to stronger habits. Individuals with less experience may perceive more risks and uncertainties that make the context seem less stable or unsatisfactory [58]. Thus, habit should weakly predict continuance intention at first. As experience with the site increases and uncertainty and risk decrease, the context will be perceived as more stable and satisfactory. Together these factors should make habit a stronger predictor of continuance intention for those with more experience. H8: Site experience will moderate the relationship between habit and usage continuance intention, such that with high site experience, habit will have a larger positive influence on usage continuance intention than with low site experience. E. Control Variables We also examine the effect of four control variables on usage continuance intention: perceived usefulness, age, gender, and friends use. Usefulness is defined as the degree to which using the OSN website enhances one s performance in OSN (i.e., making it easier and more effective to communicate with others). We include usefulness in our model as a control variable because it is a dominant predictor of intention in the IT acceptance literature based on TRA [21], including research that shows it is important in OSN website use [3]. We include age and gender following previous research that shows some beliefs have stronger influences on continuance intention depending on gender and age [21]. Finally, we include friends use because individuals may have higher continuance intention as their friends use increases [59]. III. METHODOLOGY We collected survey data in February 2007 to test the hypotheses. We used Facebook as the OSN website. Participants were juniors and seniors in an information systems course required for all business majors in a large public U.S. university. This is an appropriate sample because Facebook originally targeted college students, and Facebook users are often college-aged, comprising 40% of unique visitors from the age group in 2006 and 29% in 2007 [5]. A. Procedure The survey instructions asked subjects to indicate an OSN site of which they were either currently a member or might become a member. The survey then instructed subjects to answer all remaining questions referring to that OSN site. Of the 413 respondents, 367 indicated they currently use Facebook. We used this subsample to analyze the hypotheses. Of those excluded, 39 said they used a different OSN website and seven indicated Facebook but had not yet used it. Class time was given to complete the survey, so nonresponse was limited to those who did not attend class that day. Our response rate was 76% (413/540 in the course). Subjects were similar to the University population in age (20 years), but the female percentage (41%) was lower. B. Measurement Scales Table I reports the scales and anchors. We adapted the items for most constructs from previous research including habit [60], continuance intention [21], trusting beliefs [11], perceived usefulness 3 [61], and subjective norm and attitude [21]. We measured experience using two items representing length and frequency of prior use. These items used categorical scales appropriate for the context [32] and were multiplied to form a total site experience score. We measured privacy restrictiveness with one item created by the authors. 4 For age, gender, and friends use, we used one item measures. All items were pilot tested with subjects from the same class the previous semester (n = 362) and had adequate loadings (0.74 to 0.95) and internal consistency reliabilities (0.88 to 0.96). We treated trusting beliefs as a second-order factor with integrity, competence, and benevolence as reflective first-order factors per the guidelines in Hardin et al. [62]. First, reflective first-order dimensions tend to have high intercorrelations. Trusting beliefs tend to be consistent because of cognitive dissonance theory, which posits that individuals will tend to resolve conflicting beliefs to eliminate or reduce dissonance [11], [63], [64]. Second, substantive theory depicts trusting beliefs as a psychological construct that exists apart from any attempt to measure it. Hence, trusting beliefs will influence its components. Third, we use reflective first-order factors because we are interested in the generalizability of the trusting belief measures rather than explaining variance in the trusting beliefs concept. IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS We used EQS to analyze our data. We followed the two-step data-analysis process recommended by Anderson and Gerbing [65] that first assesses the measurement model via a confirmatory factor analysis and then tests the structural model. For the analyses, we used a multigroup method that tests for parameter invariance (equivalence) across groups representing different moderator levels. Significant differences between groups indicate moderator effects. Group analysis is recommended for testing moderator effects with structural equation modeling because it can detect differences in factor loadings in addition to beta coefficients [14]. In this set of analyses, we split the data into low and high privacy restrictiveness, and low and high site experience groups. We split the groups by the median (5.0 for privacy restrictiveness and 30 for site experience). 5 Values for restrictiveness groups were 1 to 4 (low) and 5 to 7 (high). Values for the experience groups were < 30 (low) and 30 (high). 3 The usefulness items relate to the general OSN context rather than to any specific tasks performed at the website, which is how Davis et al. [20] originally framed them. To ask about the usefulness of specific tasks would have required asking additional use questions, which was beyond our research s scope. 4 We also asked respondents Do you use a My Privacy -like feature to control who may view your profile? Yes No n/a This measure correlated with the above measure at Using this item (or combining the two items multiplicatively) did not change any of the hypothesis testing results we report later. 5 The low/high group split would be the same if we used the mean instead of the median.

6 LANKTON et al.: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PRIVACY RESTRICTIVENESS AND EXPERIENCE 659 TABLE I MEASUREMENT ITEMS A. Measurement Model Analysis When assessing the measurement model (i.e., performing a confirmatory factor analysis) in a multi-group analysis, each group is analyzed separately (low and high restrictiveness and low and high experience) [66]. The initial models revealed that habit item 2 had significant but low loadings (0.40 to 0.61) in all four models, indicating poor convergence [67]. After dropping this item, the remaining factor loadings were of a high magnitude (0.66 to 0.99) and all significant at p < Although some modification indices (Lagrange multiplier statistics) were above the 5.00 cutoff level, the standardized residuals were all below 2.58 (the highest was 0.311) suggesting no further model respecifications [68]. The goodness-of-fit statistics for the four measurement models are within suggested guidelines with the non-normed fit indices and comparative fit indices greater than 0.90 ( ) [69], the root-mean-square errors of approximation less than 0.08 ( ) [70], and the Chi square divided by degrees of freedom less than 2.00 ( ) [71]. Additionally, convergent validity was demonstrated by the internal consistency reliabilities ( ) exceeding the suggested 0.80 minimum, and the average variance extracted (AVE) ( ) exceeding the suggested 0.50 minimum [72]. Discriminant validity was demonstrated per the conservative procedure that each first-order construct s AVE square root exceeded the construct s correlation with other first-order constructs [72]. Discriminant

7 660 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 59, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012 TABLE II STRUCTURAL MODEL RESULTS PREDICTING CONTINUANCE INTENTION validity was also demonstrated because the confidence interval (± two standard errors) around the correlation estimates of all latent factor pairings excluded 1.0 [65]. Intervals that include 1.0 indicate that the measures may reflect the same construct. From the goodness-of-fit statistics, and convergent and discriminant validity tests, we determined that the measurement models were correctly specified. Because we treated trusting beliefs as a second-order factor, we used EQS to test its appropriateness as such. First, we found the first-order factors in each group were significantly correlated. Next, we found that each first-order factor was significantly related to the second-order factor, with loadings ranging from 0.60 to 0.92, all significant at p < Finally, for the combined dataset, we found that the second order-factor model had similar model fit and variance explained to a model with only first-order factors. We also assessed common method variance for the combined dataset by adding a factor with all measures as indicators to the theorized measurement model in EQS [73]. The nonnormed fit index for this model only improved minimally (0.006), suggesting a nonsignificant fit improvement [74], [75]. Also, the original factor loadings were still significant [74]. Finally, the average method variance was only 11%, which is considered to be quite low [76]. Based on these results, we conclude that common method variance is not a problem in this data. Finally, we tested for multicollinearity by examining the variance inflation factors and condition indexes for all first-order factors. The variance inflation factors ranged from 1.28 to 2.27, well below the suggested cutoff of 5.00 [77]. Also, no variable has a condition index above 30 and has two variance decomposition proportions greater than 0.50 [78]. These tests suggest multicollinearity is not a problem in the data. B. Structural Model Analysis/Moderation Testing 6 We next analyzed the structural models. In a multigroup analysis, assessing whether the path coefficients are invariant 6 Before proceeding to this step, we tested for factor loading invariance, which detects significant differences in responses to the questionnaire between groups [66]. We found several significant differences between factor loadings for the restrictiveness groups (the fourth competency item and the third usefulness item) and the experience groups (the third usefulness item, the second subjective norm item, and the third attitude item). Allowing the loadings to differ however, resulted in significant and high standardized factor loadings for all groups (0.826 to 0.964). Also, because there remained at least one invariant loading for each construct, it was deemed acceptable to proceed to testing the structural models [66]. between groups can detect hypothesized moderation [66]. We tested for structural model invariance by running multigroup constrained and unconstrained models. The χ 2 difference tests show that the constrained model s fit is significantly different from that of the unconstrained structural model for both group analyses (restrictiveness Δχ 2 = 21.48, Δdf = 8, p < 0.01; experience Δχ 2 = 22.06, Δdf = 7, p < 0.01). This indicates that the models are invariant and that moderation exists. Table II presents the results of the hypotheses tests. First, for H1 H4, we examine the significance of attitude, subjective norm, trusting beliefs, and habit on intention in all groups. We find that attitude, trusting beliefs (except with high experience), and habit significantly influence intention, while subjective norm does not. This generally supports H1, H3, and H4, but not H2. The Lagrange multiplier statistics provide hypothesis testing results for the moderator hypotheses. The trusting belief coefficients in the low (0.15) and high (0.13) restrictiveness groups are not significantly different, so H5 is not supported. H6 is supported by habit s significantly higher influence in the high restrictiveness group (0.46) than in the low (0.27) group (p = 0.025). The coefficient for trusting beliefs in the low experience group (0.23) is significantly higher than in the high experience group (0.03) (p = 0.021), supporting H7. There is no significant difference for habit s coefficient between low (0.32) and high experience (0.31) groups, so H8 is not supported. Of the control variables, usefulness and age had significant effects and group differences. The coefficient for usefulness is significantly smaller in the high restrictiveness group ( 0.07) than in the low restrictiveness group (0.23). Age has significantly more impact in the low experience group (0.16) than in the high experience group ( 0.06). C. Supplementary Analyses 7 We performed three supplementary analyses. First, to better understand attitude s mediating role in the trusting belief continuance intention relationship, we tested an alternative model that has the same relationships as the main model but adds a direct link from trusting beliefs to attitude, links from the control variables to attitude, and site experience and privacy restrictiveness moderation effects for all new links. The significance levels for hypotheses tests are the same as those reported 7 We performed another supplemental analysis showing the experience X restrictiveness interaction.

8 LANKTON et al.: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PRIVACY RESTRICTIVENESS AND EXPERIENCE 661 TABLE III STRUCTURAL MODEL RESULTS LOW-MEDIUM-HIGH GROUPS in the results section, except that trusting beliefs influence continuance intention at p < 0.05 in the low experience group and at p = 0.07 in both restrictiveness groups. Given the significant effect of trusting beliefs on attitude in all models, we find that attitude partly (in the low experience group) or fully (in the remaining groups) mediates the trusting belief continuance intention relationship [79]. Another difference between the models is that attitude s effect on continuance intention is significantly different between the low and high experience groups (low experience β = 0.49, high experience β = 0.26, p = 0.046). Also, the control variables, usefulness, and friend s use significantly influence attitude in all group models. The second analysis tested group split sensitivity. We divided the sample into as-equal-as-possible low-medium-high groups by privacy restrictiveness and site experience. Similar differences (see Table III) were found as in the original analysis, although the difference in perceived usefulness between the medium and high restrictiveness groups was only significant at p = 0.088, and the difference in trusting beliefs between the low and medium groups was significant at p = These tests generally support the robustness of our group splits. We also find an experience difference for attitude between the medium and high groups. The third analysis was to utilize different trusting beliefs measures. Measuring Facebook trusting beliefs with interpersonal attributes assumes respondents can associate these attributes with websites. Significant evidence suggests people do impute human characteristics to technical artifacts [64], [80]. However, technologies have no volition and no ability to make moral decisions and it may constitute an unwarranted anthropomorphism to attribute benevolence or integrity to a technology [81]. For this reason, subjects may more easily respond to questions about technology trusting belief attributes for websites. To see whether our results are an artifact of how we measured trust, we also measured trusting beliefs using the technology trusting attributes from prior research that include reliability, functionality, and helpfulness [81] [83] (see Table I). Helpfulness is similar to benevolence, while functionality is similar to competence, and reliability is like integrity. We validated the constructs with the same tests discussed earlier. The hypotheses have the same support as they did using interpersonal trusting beliefs attributes (see Table IV). This indicates our results are robust across both ways of measuring trusting beliefs. V. DISCUSSION While much research has examined trusting beliefs in e- commerce environments, very little has examined trusting beliefs and habit, or their moderators, in OSN websites. This study contributes to the OSN literature by using a TRA-based model to show how privacy restrictiveness and site experience moderate the trusting belief continuance intention and the habit continuance intention relationships in Facebook. Our analyses explain variances in continuance intention ranging from 25% to 37%. This research contributes to IT acceptance research on trust, habit, and privacy. Specific contributions and implications are discussed next. The first contribution is that we propose and test the moderating effects of privacy restrictiveness, an important privacy control behavior. This adds to prior research that has examined factors such as privacy concern and willingness to disclose personal information [43]. While this study hypothesized that privacy restrictiveness should moderate the effects of trusting beliefs on Facebook continuance intention, this hypothesis was not supported empirically. This means privacy restrictiveness may not reduce perceived OSN risks enough to obviate the need for trusting beliefs. Lenhart and Madden [41] report that 63% of OSN users feel strangers could find their personal information if they tried hard enough. Users may also fear Facebook could sell their information. Research should further explore risks involved in using OSN websites and how they interact with trusting beliefs. We found that habit predicts continuance intention better under high restrictiveness. This is because high restrictiveness closes the gap between the control individuals possess and the control they need to use an OSN website, thereby increasing the degree of automatic intention processing used. These users do not have to think about what information they disclose each time they use the OSN site. Our research extends Jewell and

9 662 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 59, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012 TABLE IV TECHNOLOGY TRUSTING BELIEFS STRUCTURAL MODEL COMPARATIVE RESULTS Kidwell s [47] model to OSN privacy behaviors and is one of the first to associate privacy control behaviors with habit. Future research should examine habit s association with other privacy-related variables such as privacy concerns and information sensitivity. Our group comparison based on privacy restrictiveness yielded an additional interesting finding about the control variable usefulness. We found that high restrictiveness reduces the effect of usefulness. Perhaps this is because high restrictiveness militates against a major reason Facebook is useful to share personal information with as many friends as possible. The more restrictive a user, the less useful the Facebook for that user s social networking. Our study also contributes by explaining why experience moderates trust s effects on intention to use Facebook. For example, researchers find that people grow less concerned over risk and security issues when experiential knowledge of the other party increases. Thus, we find that the trusting beliefs construct affects usage continuance intention when users have low experience, but not when they have high experience. While other studies show that the influence of trusting beliefs declines somewhat with experience (see [18], β change: 0.49 to 0.22), our study shows that with high experience, trusting beliefs no longer significantly influence usage continuance intention. This result could be because our high experience group on average had used Facebook for two years or more and used it more than once a day. Gefen s repeat customers had made seven purchases on average. Our findings suggest that trusting belief predictions should take into account how much experience individuals have. Surprisingly, our study failed to demonstrate that experience moderates habit s effects. Rather, habit predicts continuance intention with high and low experience. This was true whether we use split halves or the low third versus high third groups (see Table III). Thus, for our sample, it appears that habit forms and becomes a significant predictor of usage continuance intention quickly. This could be because even before using an OSN website, university students already have experience with and communication software. Also, the younger generation is very online-oriented, so only a little experience is needed to master new web-based technologies. Or, it could be that Facebook s useful features swiftly encourage habitual use. Future research could explore how experience moderates habit s influence for other technologies including business applications. Our findings concerning the direct effects of attitude, subjective norm, trusting beliefs, and habit (H1 H4) also contribute, although care must be taken when interpreting direct effects in the presence of interactions. First, the nonsignificant finding for subjective norm s influence on continuance intention is consistent with some prior research in voluntary contexts in which subjective norm may be less influential [21]. However, our finding may have occurred because some people that are important to users, such as parents, may actually discourage OSN use. This is supported by research on OSN websites that finds a slightly significant negative relationship [3]. Second, the significant findings for attitude provide evidence for the idea that researchers should not dismiss its potentially important role in TRA models [12]. Attitude s direct effect on continuance intention is consistent with prior work that finds attitude and other affect variables like playfulness are important in hedonic contexts including online games and now OSN websites [3], [22], [26]. Third, we provide further evidence that trusting beliefs influence website use continuance intention, adding to the growing literature that people can trust technology artifacts [64]. While attitude mediates this relationship, future work can investigate the effects of trusting attitude or trusting intention as an additional mediator, as its effects have been found to be significant in other research [12]. Finally, habit s strong role in predicting continuance intention supplements other research showing that habit can trigger one s intentions to continue using a technology [14], [28], [32]. Prior research also shows that habit can have a direct and moderating effect on actual behavior, which we did not measure [14]. These relationships should be investigated in future research. This paper also contributes to the trusting beliefs literature by showing that our results are robust whether one measures trusting beliefs in Facebook using technology trusting beliefs or interpersonal trusting beliefs. Users appear to consider the Facebook website to have human-like attributes benevolence, competence, and integrity and technology-like attributes helpfulness, functionality, and reliability. These two models appear to behave as functional equivalents of each other [84]. Future research should explore how technology trusting beliefs affect continuance intention related to other technologies.

10 LANKTON et al.: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PRIVACY RESTRICTIVENESS AND EXPERIENCE 663 A. Limitations One limitation is that we used a sample from one U.S. university. More than half of Facebook users are now outside of college [85] and Facebook is experiencing tremendous international growth [5]. The study s privacy restrictiveness and friends use measures are also limited. The privacy restrictiveness measure asked subjects how much they restrict access overall. However, OSN users may restrict access to some information (e.g., cell phone number) but not to other information (e.g., first name). Also, friend s use was measured using only one item. Finally, we only measured one privacy behavior. Another behavior is falsifying information. Lenhart and Madden report that 46% of OSN users who allow access to their profile post false information [41]. Future research can address these study limitations. B. Implications for Practice OSN providers should be aware of users differences in privacy restrictiveness and site experience because these factors influence continuance intention. For example, we show that an important factor for the low experience group is trusting beliefs, even though its impact erodes with more experience. This suggests OSN providers should take action to reduce risks early in the adoption process. This could include uncovering the key risks through surveys or interviews. Another implication is that OSN providers walk a delicate line between building useful sites and integrating safeguards that evoke trust. Disclosing enough information can make the site useful, yet disclosing too much information can put users at risk. To protect and guide users, some websites now provide disclosure guidelines. The United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team recommends that users not post their address online ( While many OSN websites have privacy policies that detail who can see and use one s personal information, these websites could also provide disclosure best practices. This could help users decide how to make the site more useful. OSN providers should explore which parts of OSN use become habitual. For example, users can browse profiles, interact with applications, join or monitor groups, browse marketplaces, and read discussion boards. It is important to track whether individuals use a function more often, are more satisfied with a function, or consider a function more stable than others. Because these factors lead to habit, they could also be moderating factors. Additional functions that build habit should be made more site-prominent. We also find that attitude drives continuance intention, which implies that OSN providers should continue to explore ways to make these sites evoke favorable feelings about their use. While favorableness may relate to how many of one s friends use the site (i.e., I like using the site because I can network with my friends on it), it may also relate to the site s relevancy as members lifestyles changes. For example, what might seem fun and be a good idea when one is in school may not have the same affect when one is finding a job or working in a professional position. By understanding which website features shape positive attitudes, OSN providers might strengthen attitude s weaker link to continuance among the more experienced users. VI. CONCLUSION This paper contributes to the OSN literature by deepening our understanding of two moderators of trusting beliefs and habit in the OSN setting. 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Harrison McKnight received the bachelor s and M.B.A. degrees from Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, and the Ph.D. degree in management information systems from the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. He is currently an Associate Professor in the Eli Broad College of Business, Michigan State University, East Lansing. He was with American Airlines SABRE Computer Systems division for ten years. His research interests include trust within technology and electronic commerce settings and the retention and motivation of technical professionals. His work has appeared in journals such as MIS Quarterly, Information Systems Research,theJournal of Management Information Systems, the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MAN- AGEMENT,andtheAcademy of Management Review. Dr. McKnight currently serves as an Associate Editor of MIS Quarterly. Jason Bennett Thatcher received the B.A. degrees in history (cum laude) and political science (cum laude) from the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, the M.P.A. degree from the Askew School of Public Administration and Policy, Tallahassee, FL, and the Ph.D. degree in business administration from the College of Business, Florida State University, Tallahassee. He is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC. His research examines the influence of individual beliefs and characteristics on the use of information technology. He also studies strategic and human resource management issues related to the application of technologies in organizations. His work has appeared in MIS Quarterly, Communications of the ACM, thejournal of Management Information Systems, theieeetransactions ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, andthejournal of Applied Psychology. Dr. Thatcher has served on the Boards of the Information Systems Research, thejournal of AIS, and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT. Nancy K. Lankton received the B.S. degree in accounting, the M.B.A. and M.S. degrees in computer information systems, and the Ph.D. degree in business administration from Arizona State University, Tempe. She is currently an Assistant Professor in the College of Business, Marshall University, Huntington, WV. She teaches accounting information systems and information systems auditing. Her main research interests include trust s impacts on individual and organizational use of information technology, e-health, and privacy behaviors related to social networking websites. She has published in journals such as Contemporary Accounting Research, the IEEE TRANSAC- TIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT,theJournal of Management Information Systems, andthejournal of the American Medical Informatics Association. Dr. Lankton is a member of the Association for Information Systems, and the Information Systems Auditor and Control Association. She currently serves as an Associate Editor for Communications of the AIS.