Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction / Dissatisfaction: A Cross Gender Comparison

Transcription

1 Pspchology and Health Promotion Edited by Prof. Radhey Shyam Prof. S. R. Khan Publish by Global Vision Publishing House Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction / Dissatisfaction: A Cross Gender Comparison Neelam Goyal, Sunil Saini and Roopwant Kaur Body dissatisfaction refers to negative subjective evaluation of one s figure or body parts. Both boys and girls experience body dissatisfaction about their figure and body parts. Adolescent girls experience high levels of body dissatisfaction, as many as 90% want to reduce the size of their bodies (Keel, Fulkerson, and Leon, 1997) while boys are about equally divided between wanting to have a smaller or larger body, and about one-third of adolescent boys do not appear to be dissatisfied with their bodies (Drewnowski and Yee, 1987; McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2001; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Falkner, Beuhring, and Resnick, 1999). Similar results were reported in Indian boys and girls in the previous study by the authors (Saini, Goyal and Sandhu, 2009). During adolescence both self-focus and awareness of others evaluations of self are heightened (Lapsley, Milstead, Quintana, Flanery, and Buss, 1986) and they reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction (Cash, Winstead, and Janda, 1986). Adolescent females are particularly vulnerable to the thin-promoting messages of the media because they are at a time in their lives when they are seeking outside information to form their self-identity (Botta, 1999). Neelam Goyal, Lecturer in Pschology, F.C. Colloge, Hisar. Sunil Saini, Research Fellow, Department of Applied Psychology, Guru Jambeshwas Unigersity of Science and Technology, Hisar. Roopwant Kaur, Research Scholar, Department of Paychology, Punjabi University, Patiala.

2 68 Psychology and Health Promotion Male college students exposed to advertisements featuring muscular men were found to have increased the discrepancy between their perceived level of muscularity and the level of muscularity that they would like to have (Leit, Gray, and Pope, 2002). Women tend to be most dissatisfied with their middle and lower bodies and their breasts, while men have been found to be most unhappy with their middle and upper bodies, particularly abdomen, chest, and upper arm body parts that frequently are emphasized in the media (Garner, 1997; Grogan, 1999; Hoyt and Kogan, 2001). Research has shown that pressure from mass media is related with body satisfaction and other health problems (Barlett, Vowels and Saucier, 2008) and print media is playing a significant role in developing poor body image. The desire to change shape or weight is common in both gender (Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001). The girls strive for a tall, slender and curvaceous body, while boys strive for a lean and muscular body. The entire fashion model in popular beauty contests (e.g. Miss Universe, Miss World, and region specific e.g., Miss India), television and movie actors and actresses have become increasingly thinner in recent times. The consistent depiction of tall, slim and curvaceous models in these contests and other media are extremely unattainable. The discrepancy arises out of actual body and ideal body size increases dissatisfaction with one s body. Several theories and models have been suggested to explain the acquisition and maintenance of body dissatisfaction. The most empirically supported explanations for the increase in body dissatisfaction are derived from socio-cultural models that identify social pressures (e.g., media, friends, family). The strongest sociocultural pressures that affect body dissatisfaction are imposed by the mass media (i.e., print media, movies, and television) (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, and Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). The current multimedia is very powerful and omnipresent leading to increased body dissatisfaction among both men and women (Derenne and Beresne, 2006). The present study is focused on the effects of print media in body dissatisfaction among adolescent boys and girls. Media is a strong influence for constructing meaning in everyday live of people of all ages, particularly among adolescents. Each and

3 Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction everyday we are bombarded with the standards of beautiful, slim and curvaceous body figure in fashion, film and other men and women magazines and newspapers. Experimental studies have found that a single exposure to muscular and athletic male bodies can produce body dissatisfaction in males (Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn, 2004; Leit, Gray, and Pope, 2002), young girls are more exposed to such magazines and other print media thus more vulnerable to body dissatisfaction. Although it is very difficult to escape from these attractive body figure portrayed in print media, the most important thing is to understand which is attainable and which cannot be, to avoid the feeling of poor body image. The portrayal of overglamorized models in all types of men and women fitness, health and fashion magazines sends the massage that in order to be successful and accepted; one must be attractive and thin. This biased perception leads to body dissatisfaction. Print media encourage girls to achieve a thin body through dieting but encourages boys to shape up through exercise (Heinberg, 1996). At least 50% of all teenage girls are regular readers of fashion magazines (Nichter, 2000) and the number of hours spent watching music videos is related to adolescent girl s weight concern (Borzekowski, Robinson, and Killen, 2000). Adolescent females make comparisons between themselves and the models in magazines and they come to accept these beauty ideals as realistically attainable goals. The more they desire to attain these goals, the more they read beauty and fashion magazines, and the more they may be willing, or feel pressure, to try shortcuts or potentially harmful measure to attain them (Thomsen, Webber, & Brown, 2002). According to Botta (2003), 23.4 to 41.6 percent of variance in girl s body satisfaction was accounted for both by the amount of time girls spent looking at women s fashion and health/fitness magazines and by how girls processed the magazines content. Botta claimed that magazine reading habit is one of the important predictor of body image disturbances. Morry and Staska (2001) found that reading of fitness magazines was associated with the internalization of the male ideal as physically fit, as well as with body shape dissatisfaction and disordered eating. With the emergence

4 70 Psychology and Health Promotion of foreign print media with advanced technology in India, it is creating curiosity among youths to have a fair colour, slim, and curvaceous figure like the models in western media that leads body dissatisfaction. The effect of media in Indian context is very crucial as in many parts of the country particularly in South India, film stars are worshiped as Lords and people have made even Mandir (place of worship) for such ideals. Film star like Rajnikant and Amitabh Bachchan are very popular in India. Even a single change in their lifestyles e.g., hair style, looks, etc. is instantly adopted by their followers. This is amazing and rarely seen in any culture around the world. Media plays a very important role in spreading the latest style adopted by their ideals and most of youths try to be like their super hero/heroin, which in turn, leads to development of body dissatisfaction. Most researchers believe that such exposures instigate social comparison processes that typically have negative effects on self-evaluation (Groesz, Levine, and Murnen, 2002). The Present Research Though several studies have been conducted on body dissatisfaction in females, yet, there is scarcity of research literature on body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys particularly in India where very few researchers have touched upon this issue in both genders. The scientific community in west and other parts of the world has noted, there are an increasing number of men who are concerned with the size and/or shape of their bodies, specifically their muscularity (Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, & Drab, 2002; Edwards and Laudner, 2000), however, less is known about body dissatisfaction among boys. Researchers (Jones, 2004; Presnell, Bearman, and Stice, 2004) also noted that body dissatisfaction is a substantial concern among adolescent boys and for both genders, the desire to alter shape or weight is common (Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001). Keeping this in view the following hypotheses were made 1. There will be significant gender differences in fashion magazine exposure among adolescents.

5 Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction There will be significant gender differences in internalization of thin body figure among adolescents. 3. There will be significant gender differences in body consciousness among adolescents. 4. There will be significant gender differences in physical appearance among adolescent boys and girls. 5. There will be significant gender difference in body dissatisfaction among adolescents. Sample The sample comprised of 199 students (boys 106 and girls 93) studying at senior secondary level and graduation level from Hisar. Students at senior secondary level and graduation level were pursuing courses in arts, commerce and science. Sample was selected randomly. The age range of the participants was years and all of them were from the same socioeconomic background. Tools Used Body dissatisfaction was measured by using the subscales of Eating Disorder Inventory- Body Dissatisfaction ( EDI-BD). The nine-item body dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-BD, Garner et al., 1983) was used to measure participants satisfaction with their bodies and body image concerns. Scores may range from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicative of greater body dissatisfaction. The EDI manual reports strong internal consistency ( Chronbach alpha=.91) in girls aged years. The data from the present study also revealed a high internal consistency ( Chronback alpha=.83) consistency of the scale. Multidimensional Media Influence Scale (MMIS; Cusumano and Thompson, 2000): The Multidimensional Media Influence Scale (MMIS) was used to assess the influence of print media. There are twelve items in MMIS and items were to be endorsed on a four point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) and 4 (strongly agree). The higher score is indicative of high media influence. Cusamano and Thompson (2000) reported high internal consistency for the awareness subscale (Chronbach alpha = 0.74 and found

6 72 Psychology and Health Promotion awareness of media messages to be associated with the girls reported body dissatisfaction. Data from the present study also revealed a high internal consistency ( alpha =.80). The Thinness and Restricting Expectancy Inventory (TREI; Hohlstein, Smith, and Atlas, 1998): The Thinness and Restricting Expectancy Inventory was used for assessing thin-ideal internalization. Forty four items were selected from the TREI assessing agreement with statements concerning expected social and psychological benefits from achieving thinness using a 5-point response format ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The higher score is the indicator of high thin-ideal internalization. The TREI has adequate internal consistency (Chronbach alpha=.98) and high convergent validity (Hohlstein et al., 1998). Data from the study also indicated high internal consistency( Chronbach alpha=.86). Objectified Body C0onsciousness (OBC) (McKinley and Hyde, 1996): The OBC is a 24-item scale that was based upon social constructionism. The OBC has three factors (eight items per factor): (a) Surveillance represents the degree to which someone watches his/her body or experiences his/her body from an observer s perspective; (b) Body shame reflects the degree to which someone feels shame for not fulfilling internalized cultural standards for body size and shape; and (c) Control beliefs reflects the degree to which a person believes she can control her weight and appearance if she tries hard enough. Participants respond on a 7-point scale that ranges from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree) to statements. McKinley and Hyde (1996) reported psychometric data across three studies. The higher score is the indicator of low objectified body consciousness on all the three dimensions. Specifically, internal consistencies were: Surveillance,.76.89; Body Shame,.70.84; Control Beliefs, Physical Appearance Comparison Scale (PACS; Thompson, Heinberg, and Tantleff, 1991): The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale was comprised of five items and. Rresponses were made on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 = never to 5 = always. Scores ranged from 5 to 25; a high score indicates a strong tendency to compare one s own appearance with that of others.

7 Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction Procedure Initially, participants in a group of 10-15, as shown in Picture 1 and 2, were instructed to look for 2-3 minutes at the images of photographs of TV, movie stars and commercial advertisements taken from magazines carrying thin-ideal images of men and women. All of these images were chosen by the authors and were taken from popular fitness, health and fashion magazines of men and women and websites. When it was asked from boys and girls about the choice of their favorite model/actor, most of them responded that they liked the actor s outlook, curvaceous figure and muscularity and body shape. Participants were also asked to rate how often they view a variety of listed magazines. Some of the girls responded that of course, when you see an image of a thin and beautiful model, you are motivated to try to look like that read more about tips to reduce weight. Similarly some boys responded that definitely we would like to have six pack body figure like that Shahrukh Khan in Om Shanti Om movie. Overall responses of participants were that beauty, fashion and health magazines are affecting today s ideal of body image. Statistical Analysis To assess the gender differences in different personal characteristics, t-test was used to analyze the data. Results and Discussion The first hypothesis was that there will be significant gender differences in print media influences. The results were in hypothesized direction i.e., males scored significantly higher( t=2.50,df=197,p<.01) mean scores( mean=34.20,sd=9.30) than females( mean=30.90,sd=8.90) (Table 1). The finding suggests that boys and girls differ in their view on print media exposure with girls scoring less as compared to boys. Research has shown that exposure to fashion and beauty magazines have been found to be related with body dissatisfaction (Botta, 2003). Furthermore, experimental research has revealed a causal relationship between brief magazine exposure and immediate body image in women (Groesz et al., 2002).

8 74 Psychology and Health Promotion The second hypothesis was that there will be significant gender difference in internalization of thin ideal. The results were not found to be in the expected direction as the boys and girls mean scores did not differ. This suggests that both boys and girls equally internalize thin ideal. Although the difference was not significant but the higher score of girls indicate that girls internalize more media images as compared to boys. Research in western culture has shown that physical attractiveness in girls is inextricably linked with thinness while some boys are more likely to engage in behaviours to increase musculature (McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2004). Non-significant results over internalization of thin ideal in Indian sample are the indicative of the fact that both boys and girls equally internalize their body ideal equally, which is further linked with body dissatisfaction. Current sociocultural theory also offers the most robust theoretical framework for understrity body dissatisfaction, contending that the thin ideal is created and reinforced by a number of social influences (Thompson et al. 1999). Among these, the mass media have been identified as the most pervasive and the most powerful (Groesz et al. 2002). In particular, fashion and beauty magazines have been accused of leading the charge in disseminating the thin ideal (Silverstein et al. 1986). In one study content analysis of 69 American women magazines revealed that 94% displayed an image of a thinidealized model or celebrity on the cover (Malkin et al. 1999). The third hypothesis was that there will be significant gender difference in body objectification. The obtained results were in expected direction with boys higher mean (mean= 15.30, SD=7.50) as compared to girls (mean=13.40, SD=3.70). These means differ significantly ( t=2.20,df=197,p<.05). The finding suggest that both groups differed significantly with respect to the objectified body consciousness. Interestingly, boys were more objectifiers than girls. This means that the influence of print media i.e., fitness, health and fashion magazines is more in boys as compared to girls. On comparision of the physical appearance component it was found that the obtained means did not differ significantly( Table 1). Thus the fourth hypothesis was rejected. Non significant gender in participants included in the sample might be due to the cultural

9 Print Media Influence on Body Satisfaction differences. Results of the study suggest that both boys and girls compared their physical appearance with the actor or model in print media. Most empirical studies in western countries have shown that, when compared to men, women are more concerned with their appearance, more likely to perceive themselves as heavier than they actually are, more dissatisfied with their bodies (Cash and Brown, 1989; Cohn and Adler, 1992; Davis, Dionne, and Lazarus, 1996). The fifth hypothesis assumed that there shall be significant gender differences in body dissatisfaction, among adolescents, was confirmed. Males scored significantly( t= 5.13,df=197,p,.01) higher mean score (mean=102.00,sd ) than girls ( mean=77.90,sd= 33.60), and thus the fifth hypothesis was confirmed. Boys were more dissatisfied with their body as compared to girls. These results are contrary to those found in western countries, where it has been found that girls were generally more dissatisfied with their bodies than boys (Gardner et al., 1999; Hargreaves and Tiggermann, 2004; Jones, 2004). The present findings were in contrary to Fredrickson and Robert s (1997) findings reporting that women are socialized to see themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated, so they are likely to feel shame and anxiety for not meeting cultural standards. This means boys in the present study were more anxious, feel ashamed and feel their body as objects to be looked at and evaluated by others. TABLE 1 Means and Standard Deviations of multimedia influences, internalization of thin ideal, objectified body consciousness, physical appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction of boys and girls Variables/factors Male (N=106) Female (93) Mean (SD) Mean SD t Print media influences 34.2 (9.30) 30.9 (8.90) 2.50** Internalization for thin ideal (57.10) (48.60) 0.66 Objectified body consciousness (7.50) (3.70) 2.20* Physical appearance comparison (21.50) (20.10) 0.36 Body dissatisfaction (33.1) 77.9 (33.6) 5.13** *p<.05, **p<.01

10 76 Psychology and Health Promotion To conclude, the current findings have contributed importantly to the existing research literature on the influences of print media in body dissatisfaction. There were significant gender differences in print media influence, body consciousness, and body dissatisfaction. The results of the research indicated that youth included in the present study are also vulnerable to glamorized world of fashion and media portrayal, which affect their young mind through the mechanism as shown in the model. It is generally conceived that girls are more vulnerable to media exposure, the results indicated that boys are more vulnerable to media impact therefore prevention and treatment programmes should be targeted to both genders. REFERENCES Agliata, D., and Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, Barlett, C.P., Vowels, C.L., and Saucier, D.A. (2008). Meta-analysis of the effects of media images on men s body-image concern. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, Borzekowski, D.L., Robinson, T.N., and Killen, J.D. (2000). Does the camera add 10 pounds? Media use, perceived importance of appearance, and weight concerns among teenage girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, Botta, R.A. (1999). Television images and adolescent girls body image disturbance. Journal of Communication, 49, Botta, R. A. (2003). For your health? The relationship between magazine reading and adolescents body image and eating disturbances. Sex Roles, 48, Cash, T. F., and Brown, T. A. (1989). Gender and body images: Stereotypes and realities. Sex Roles, 21, Cash, T.F., Winstead, B.A., and Janda, L.H. (1986). The great American shape-up: Body image survey report. Psychology Today, 20, Cohn, L. D., and Adler, N. E. (1992). Female and male perceptions of ideal body shapes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, Cusumano, D.L., and Thompson, J.K. (2000). Media influence and body image in 8 11 year-old boys and girls: A preliminary report on the multidimensional media influence scale. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29,

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