Research Methods in Psychology UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY 2013

Transcription

1 + Research Methods in Psychology UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY 2013

2 + Chapter 1 Summary 2 Experimental research: construction of research hypotheses; identification of operational independent and dependent variables identification of extraneous and potential confounding variables Ways of minimising confounding and extraneous variables Evaluation of different types of experimental research designs Sampling procedures in selection and allocation of participants Techniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection Statistics Inferential & Descriptive Ethical principles and professional conduct Use of animals in psychological research

3 + Research Methods SUMMARY 3 Steps in psychological research Experimental research Independent & dependent variables The hypothesis Operational hypothesis Extraneous & confounding variables Types of experimental research designs Qualitative & quantitative data collection Analysing & interpreting data Statistics Reliability & validity Conclusions & generalisations Ethical principles & professional conduct Use of animals in research Research report writing

4 + Steps In Psychological Research 4

5 + Step 1 Identify the research problem 5 Indentify the problem or topic of interest to be researched A literature search enables the researcher to: become more familiar with their topic Refine their ideas Propose a relevant research question that can be investigated

6 + Step 2 Construct the hypothesis 6 A research hypothesis is: A TESTABLE PREDICTION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO OR MORE EVENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS It is an educated guess about what the results of the research will be. The hypothesis is based on knowledge gained from other research or theories on the topic being studied It is constructed BEFORE actually conducting the research It provides a focus for the research procedures The research hypothesis is written as a very SPECIFIC STATEMENT

7 + Step 3 Design of the method 7 The researcher must decide on: which research method is best for testing the hypothesis The specific design features of the method RESEARCH METHODS are the techniques the psychologists use to collect, analyse and interpret data Examples of research methods include: Experiments Observational studies Case Studies Surveys + Questionnaires A combination of methods may be used Other factors that need to be considered are: The type of data to be collected How the data will be collected Which participants will be studied How many participants there will be How the participants will be selected How the participants will be allocated to the different groups

8 + Step 4 Collection of the data 8 The data will provide the information for the results The data must be collected in an OBJECTIVE way (without bias, prejudice or other personal factors) to prevent any distortion of the data obtained More than one data collection technique may be used Examples include: Observation Self-reports (questionnaires; interviews) Standardised tests Physiological recordings (eg: blood pressure, brain scans) The data collection techniques used depend on the research topic and they hypothesis under investigation

9 + Step 5 Analysis of the data 9 The data collected by the researcher is initially called the RAW DATA This data must be summarised, organised and represented in a meaningful way The researcher is then better able to interpret the data Statistical tests will be applied to the data, including: Mean, median, mode, range Tests of statistical significance Standard deviation

10 + Step 6 Interpret the data 10 The data needs to be interpreted and explained This includes drawing a CONCLUSION from the results obtained CONCLUSION: a judgment about what the results of an investigation mean Relates directly to the hypothesis Is based on the outcome of the statistical testing STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE the likelihood that the results obtained for the study could have occurred by chance Researchers may also identify any LIMITATIONS that may have occurred in the study (factors that may have influenced their results in an unwanted way)

11 + Step 7 Reporting of the research findings The research findings must be objectively reported to others who may be interested in the results The report may be presented to other psychologists at a conference and submitted to a journal for publication The report must follow very strict guidelines and standards before it can be published The report includes: A summary of the findings Details of the background information How the study was conducted How the data was interpreted and applied Any problems encountered during the research that may have affected the results List of references Reports are an integral part of communication amongst the scientific community Reporting allows other researchers to REPLICATE the research previously conducted in order to study the accuracy of the results or apply the results to other groups or situations 11

12 + EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 12 EXPERIMENT: used to test a CAUSE & EFFECT relationship between variables under controlled conditions The researcher conducts the experiment in a systematic way, manipulating and measuring the variables of interest while controlling other variables that may influence the results. VARIABLES are any factors that can CHANGE (vary) in amount or type over time, and can be measured. A variable can produce two or more different scores when measured eg: alcohol content, level of stress, happiness, amount of sleep Variables can also include FIXED or unchanging factors as they may also have an affect on the research, eg: gender, genetic factors

13 + IV = Independent Variable 13 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE The variable that is systematically manipulated or changed in some way by the researcher in order to assess its effect on the participants responses The way in which it will be manipulated is planned and determined before the experiment begins It is called an independent variable because the researcher can independently vary it in some way Eg: IV = the number of hours slept look at how amount of sleep affects performance at work, school etc

14 + DV = Dependent Variable 14 DEPENDENT VARIABLE the aspect of a participant s behaviour or experience that is observed or measured and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable It is called a dependent variable because whether or not it will change depends on the effects of the independent variable Eg: DV = performance at work IV = number of hours slept

15 + IV & DV in an experiment 15 The IV is seen as the possible CAUSE and the DV is seen as the possible EFFECT In a simple experiment where only one IV and only one DV is being investigated the design of the experiment will include an EXPERIMENTAL condition and a CONTROL condition. EXPERIMENTAL condition the IV is present CONTROL condition the IV is not present In other words, the participants in the experimental group will be treated differently to the participants in the control group The control condition allows the researcher to determine if the independent variable has had an effect

16 + Experimental Condition vs Control 16

17 + The Research Hypothesis 17 aka The OPERATIONAL Hypothesis The hypothesis must be constructed and worded in such a way that the results obtained from the research will either support or not support the prediction. The simplest hypothesis for an experiment would state that one event or characteristic (i.e. one variable) influences, causes or contributes to a second event or characteristic (i.e. another variable), eg: exercise relieves depression In experimental research, the research hypothesis states the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables to be tested; that is, that the IV(s) will cause the DV(s) to change in a particular way. The variables being tested are defined and stated in terms of how they will be observed, manipulated and measured

18 + The Operational Hypothesis 18 Must include: The IV (how it will be manipulated) The DV (how it will be measured) The population from which the sample has been selected The hypothesis must also be: Testable (variables can be reliably observed, manipulated, measured) An educated guess (based on logic, theory & past research) Precisely written (very specific) Expressed clearly as a single sentence

19 + Operational Definitions 19 Researchers define their subject matter in terms of the way they observe or measure it Psychologists define what they are measuring by describing precisely how they are measuring it. The resulting definitions are called operational definitions. An operational definition defines an observable event in terms of the procedures (or operations ) used to measure that event. Example: How would you define when a rat has turned in a maze? How would you define memory? The definitions must include responses that can be SEEN (observed) and COUNTED (measured)

20 + Extraneous & Confounding Variables 20 Any potential independent variable which is of no direct interest to the researcher but which may have an effect on the dependent variable is known as an EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE. If extraneous variables are not controlled the researcher may not be able to determine whether it is the independent variable or extraneous variable (or both) that has produced the observed results. A variable other than, or in conjunction with, the independent variable that will be producing the observed effect on the dependent variable. CONFOUNDING VARIABLE = An uncontrolled extraneous variable. Experimenters need to ensure that all possible extraneous variables are controlled to minimise the possibility of them becoming confounding variables.

21 + Potential Extraneous & Confounding Variables 21 Individual Participant Differences Demand Characteristics Placebo Effects Experimenter Effects Order Effects Artificiality Use of Non-Standardised Instructions & Procedures

22 + Individual Participant Differences 22 aka Participant Variables Variables that make one individual different from another include: Age Ethnicity Mood Biological sex Religion Self-esteem Intelligence Motivation Social skills Personality Physical health Emotional state Memory Coordination Problem solving ability Educational background Economic background Cultural background Prior experience with materials or tasks in the experiment These variables (and more) can affect how participants respond in an experiment The researcher tries to take into account those participant-related variables that have the potential to impact on the DV (in addition to the IV), and therefore possibly distort the results.

23 + Placebo Effect 23 A PLACEBO is an inert or inactive substance that contains nothing known to be helpful A PLACEBO EFFECT occurs when improvement in performances or well being results from the participant s knowledge of the experimental condition and expectation that a certain treatment will produce a beneficial effect. For example, you say that your headache is cured because you THINK that you have been given a special drug that helps you, but you have really only been given a sugar pill In order to prevent the placebo effect from occurring, researchers use the SINGLE BLIND PROCEDURE. This is when participants are kept unaware of (blind) the experimental conditions until completion of data collection.

24 + Experimenter Effects 24 It has been argued that experimenters have a vested interest in making sure their experiment works. It is possible that the expectations of the experimenter may bias the results. EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS are the unintended influences of the researcher(s) that may lead them to treat participants differently in the different conditions/groups of the experiment. Experimenters can influence subtly the way participants act so that they behave in accordance with their expectations. Experimenter effects may also lead to data being scored or recorded in a biased manner.

25 + Double Blind Procedure 25 To prevent BOTH experimenter and participant effects from confounding the results, researchers will use a DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE. Both the experimenter and participant are unaware to the experimental condition to which each participant has been exposed until the data collection and scoring has been completed. A double blind procedure ensures that the actual effects of the independent variable are being measured and that experimenters and participants are not influencing the results.

26 + Order Effect 26 In some experiments, participants are exposed to more than one treatment condition (IV) and they may be required to perform the same type of task twice or even many times under different treatment conditions. The order or sequence in which these conditions are administered can be a problem in this type of repeated measures experimental design. An order effect occurs when performance, as measured by the DV, is influenced by the specific order in which the conditions, treatments or tasks are presented. Basically, performing one task affects the performance of the next task. Two types of order effects are: Practice effects Leads to participants being able to anticipate requirements; fatigue; improved performance; boredom Carry-over effects effects from the previous trial have not had time to wear off and therefore affect performance on the subsequent task. Eg; alcohol still in blood; fatigue

27 + Use of Non-Standardised Instructions 27 When the research procedures are non-standardised, this means that they are not kept the same for all participants (except for exposure to the IV by participants in the experimental group). ALL parts of the procedure must be controlled so that all aspects are kept the same ensuring that all participants are exposed to identical variables. The instructions given to each participant must be expressed in exactly the same way. Even small variations in procedures may affect participants responses in unforeseen ways (confounding variables).

28 + Ways of Minimising Extraneous & Confounding Variables 28 Participant selection & allocation considers the individual differences of participants SAMPLE SELECTION Convenience sampling (biased sample) Random sampling (unbiased sample) Stratified sampling Stratified-random sampling PARTICIPANT ALLOCATION Experimental & Control groups Random allocation Counterbalancing reduces order effects Single-blind and Double-blind procedures reduce participant and/or experimenter effects Placebo reduces demand characteristics Standardised Instructions reduces likelihood of confounding variables

29 + Participant Selection & Allocation 29 Population: the larger group from which a sample is drawn; a particular group who has one or more characteristics in common Sample: a subset of the population of interest; The sample should mirror, or be representative of, the entire population of interest Participant selection: obtaining subjects from the population for the sample Participant allocation: allocating sample subjects to the control or experimental group Sampling methods: Random sampling Convenience sampling Stratified random sampling

30 + Sampling Methods 30 Convenience sampling (biased sample) selecting participants who are readily available without any attempt to make the sample representative of a population Quick, easy, inexpensive Biased as it doesn t represent the population of interest Random sampling (unbiased sample) ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected as a participant for a study (and that the selection of one participant does not influence the selection or non-selection of another) Tossing a coin; lottery method; random number generator

31 + Sampling Methods (cont ) 31 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population to be sampled into distinct subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each stratum, in the same proportions as they occur in the target population Examples of strata include: income, age, sex, religion, cultural background, place of residence, IQ Stratified-random sampling involves identifying all of the people within each stratum of research interest, then randomly selecting samples of proportionate size from within each stratum Provides an unbiased and better representation of the population Time consuming process; difficult to achieve

32 + Participant Allocation 32 After participants have been selected they have to be allocated to the different groups that may be used in the research study. This is a systematic process. It ensures that the personal characteristics of the participants which could affect the results are evenly distributed within the different groups. There are typically two different types of groups in a psychological experiment: EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP

33 + Experimental vs Control Group 33 Experimental Group The participants are exposed to the experimental condition (independent variable is present) Control Group Exposed to the control condition (independent variable is absent) Provides a standard against which the performance of the experimental group can be compared to. Allows the researcher to determine whether the independent variable has caused some change or affected the behaviour being measured (dependent variable)

34 + Experimental vs Control Group (cont ) 34 Some experiments use the SAME group of participants in the experimental and control conditions. The results for the same group under the two different conditions would then be compared. It is essential that experimental & control groups are as similar as possible in terms of participant characteristics. Both groups must be treated the same, EXCEPT for when the independent variable is applied to the experimental group.

35 + Comparison of Experimental & Control Groups 35

36 + Random Allocation of Participants 36 Every participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being selected for either the experimental group or the control group. Lottery method, flipping a coin, random number generators. Ensures that the differences in the composition of the experimental and control groups are minimised. Aim is to obtain equivalent groups before applying the independent variable, hence enabling the researcher to estimate the real effect of the independent variable.

37 + Counterbalancing 37 Counterbalancing involves systematically changing the order of tasks for participants in a balanced way to counteract the unwanted effects on performance due to a particular order Prevents order effects from influencing the experiment Two types of counterbalancing methods: Between-participants counterbalancing EXAMPLE does Pepsi taste better than Coca Cola? The experimental group is divided into two groups Group 1 does task X (taste Pepsi) first while Group 2 does task Y (taste Coca Cola) first Within-participants counterbalancing EXAMPLE does Pepsi taste better than Coca Cola? All participants do task X first and task Y second The participants re-do the task, but do task Y first then do task X

38 + Overcoming Variables 38 Name Purpose Method Single blind To overcome placebo effect Randomly allocate subjects to either control/experimental group without their knowledge Double blind Counter balancing To overcome experiment effect To overcome order effect Use assistant to allocate subjects to control/experimental groups so that the researcher treats all subjects as equals Half of the sample do the experimental condition first, the other half do the control condition, then swap

39 39 Experimental Designs Repeated Measures Design Matched Subject Design Independent - Groups Design Eg: Sally is in both the experimental & control group Eg: Sally is matched to Kerry who has similar characteristics as Sally. Eg: Sally is in the experimental group by chance and the others are in the control group. Sally Sally Sally Kerry Sally The Experimental Group The Control Group The Experimental Group The Control Group Sally + others make up the experimental group The Control Group

40 + REPEATED MEASURE DESIGN 40 Participants are exposed to: BOTH the experimental and control set ups for the experiment, or ALL of the different experimental conditions. Each participant is repeatedly tested and the variations caused by different experimental conditions appear within the same person s performance rather than between different groups of participants. It is important to ensure that order effects and/or practice effects are not confounded with the effects of the independent variable: the order in which the participant is exposed to each experimental condition (order effects). becoming familiar with the procedure giving participants the chance to practice the different conditions (practice effects).

41 + 41 Repeated Measures Design

42 + MATCHED SUBJECTS DESIGN 42 This design is similar to the repeated measure design, however, DIFFERENT participants are tested in each of the experimental conditions. The participants are MATCHED according to the participant variables that the experimenters believe will have a major effect on the data. Once the participants are matched into a pair, triplet, quad (etc), each member of the group is then allocated randomly to one of the experimental conditions. Each participant is exposed to only ONE experimental condition, hence preventing order, practice or fatigue effects.

43 + 43 Matched Participants Design

44 + INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN 44 The researcher randomly allocates the participants to ONE of the experimental conditions. This method is considered one of the weakest designs as it increases the likelihood of the individual differences between the different participants effecting the outcome of the research.

45 + 45 Independent Groups Design

46 + Data Collection Methods 46 Data = the information collected by researchers, eg: numerical values, facts, descriptions of observed behaviours. Quantitative & Qualitative Data Quantitative = numerical values (numbers); measurable data, expressed in scores or numbers Qualitative = descriptive data, expressed in words or images information based on characteristics of what is being studied Objective & Subjective Data Objective = information based on measurements of participants response that can be directly observed & verified by the researcher. Subjective = based on self-reports given by participants.

47 + Case Study 47 Definition - an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation. Case studies allow clinical psychologists to develop a detailed profile of a client Case studies may involve a combination of data collection techniques Eg: in-depth interview with client, family members, friends, teachers, work colleagues; medical records of client; school records of client; psychological testing; observation of the client The case study method is often used when large numbers of participants are not available for study Eg: study of individuals with a rare or unusual disorder, such as brain damage patients Examples Phineas Gage (brain injury); H.S. (Anton s syndrome)

48 + Case Study Advantages & Limitations 48 Advantages Provide detailed information on rare or unusual disorders No manipulation or control of variables necessary No artificiality real life experience Can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research Limitations Cannot be replicated to test the reliability Can t be used to test a hypothesis Process of data collection can be time-consuming If the focus is on rare disorders, then the information cannot be generalised to others in the population Information gained is more susceptible to being biased, influencing the accuracy, especially if investigations are carried out by just one researcher When writing the report, the researcher may focus on particular details whilst omitting other points, which may be just as relevant, that would support his conclusions

49 + Observational Study 49 All psychology research studies involve OBSERVATION Observation refers to any means by which an observable event is studied Eg; written responses, test scores, brain wave recordings OBSERVATIONAL STUDY refers to a specific approach to collect data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs It is used when the behaviour under investigation is clearly visible and can be easily recorded Eg: roles and hierarchies in groups of friends when discussing a controversial issue see who speaks and when Observations can occur in a controlled laboratory setting or in a field setting Note that this is NOT an experimental research method

50 + Observational Study - Types 50 Naturalistic Observation - a naturally occurring behaviour of interest is viewed by the researcher in an inconspicuous or unnoticeable manner so that their presence does not influence in any way the behaviour being observed Non-Participation Observation the researcher hides his presence while making observations Participation Observation the research is an active member of the group being observed Examples Dian Fossey (gorillas) Jane Goodall (chimpanzees) Rosenhan experiment (mental hospitals)

51 + Observational Study Advantages 51 Behaviours can be recorded in their natural real-life settings People are not influenced artificiality or demand characteristics Studying in a natural environment allows the researcher to observe the long-term effects of the environment on shaping complex behaviour this cannot be achieved in the laboratory setting Naturalistic observation often enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of organisms both immediately and over time Some types of human behaviour can only be studied as they naturally occur because it would be inappropriate or impractical to study them in a laboratory situation Some behaviours cannot be realistically reproduced in a laboratory It does not require the cooperation of participants being observed

52 + Observational Study Limitations 52 As the observer doesn t directly influence the behaviour being observed in an unobtrusive observational study, it sometimes requires a lot of patience to wait for the behaviour of interest to occur Even though the cooperation of participants is not required, ethical issues are raised of not obtaining informed consent, in particular, the person s expectation of privacy can be violated It can be difficult to determine the CAUSES of the observed behaviour Observer bias researchers can sometimes unconsciously distort what they see so that it resembles what they hope to see Researchers must be trained to observe and record accurately to minimise their personal biases Two or more researchers may be required to ensure that behaviours are not missed or judged incorrectly

53 + Self Report Study 53 The participant s written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher. Questionnaire a written set of questions designed to draw out information on a topic of research interest Structured format; Participants can respond at own pace; Easy to administer; don t require supervision Can be sent in the or done online A survey is a highly structured questionnaire Interview involves questions that are asked by the interviewer to gain information about the topic of research interest The participant is asked specific questions in a controlled manner; interviewer follows a script & simply records the responses In an unstructured interview the questions asked can vary between participants; there is freedom for discussion between the interviewer and participant Questionnaires & interviews can be used as part of other research studies.

54 + Self Report Study (cont ) 54 FREE RESPONSE QUESTIONS (open-ended): Participants describe their thoughts, feelings or behaviour freely in their own words, providing QUALITATIVE data FIXED RESPONSE QUESTIONS (closed): Participants must select their response from a number of fixed alternatives, providing QUANTITATIVE data

55 + Self Report Study Advantages & Limitations 55 ADVANTAGES Provide both quantitative and qualitative data Can collect data from a large number of people in a relatively short time Guarantees anonymity Qualitative data provides rich, detailed information Quantitative data enables precise analysis and comparisons Structured interviews are quick to administer & reduce demand characteristics LIMITATIONS Assumes that people are willing to answer all questions and will give accurate answers May be unable to recall information reliably People may deliberately give false information in order to create a favourable impression of themselves (social desirability) Respondents need to have well-developed language skills Qualitative data is difficult to summarise and statistically analyse Susceptible to experimenter effects The information provided by the respondents is SUBJECTIVE and often cannot be verified

56 + Analysing & Interpreting Data 56 Researchers must decide whether or not the results support the hypothesis. A judgment must be made about whether the results indicate a relationship between the dependent & independent variables. Researchers us STATISTICS to analyse, describe and interpret the data that is collected DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS are used for analysing, organising, summarising & describing results INFERENTIAL STATISTICS give meaning to the results and involve judgments about the data gained; can be used to find out how likely it is that the results occurred by chance.

57 + Descriptive Statistics 57 Measures of Central Tendency using one number to describe the whole group; the central number; seen as a typical score for a set of scores Mean The average Best used when the set of scores are fairly evenly distributed Preferred method as it takes all scores into account and can be used for calculating other statistical tests Median the middle number in a set of scores Best used when there are extreme scores in a set of data Mode The score that occurs the most often Best used to show what happens most often for that group

58 + Inferential Statistics 58 Inferential statistics: allow the research to make conclusions based on evidence about the results obtained in the study. enables the researcher to determine whether the results would occur in the population from which the sample was drawn. STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE is used to indicate whether the difference in results for the control and experimental groups is a REAL difference, and NOT due to chance. One way to find out if the results are due to chance is to repeat the experiment several times under the exact same conditions and then see if the differences are identical. This may however be impractical. TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE can be used to determine to what extent the results occurred by chance. These statistical tests provide a precise mathematical value which indicates the likelihood or probability that if the same test was to be repeated, the results would be the same/different. If the likelihood of the difference occurring by chance is extremely low, then it is said that the difference is STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT.

59 + p values 59 p value refers to the PROBABILITY THAT THE RESULTS OCCURRED BY CHANCE The significance level of any difference in the results for the control group and experimental group is called a p value (p=probability). In other words: What is an acceptable difference? Did the difference occur by chance? Is the difference big enough to say that the IV truly had an effect? An acceptable p value for results is established BEFORE the experiment is conducted. Usually psychologists use p<0.05 (5 in 100) as the significance level. Sometimes stricter levels are needed, such as p<0.01 (1 in 100) or p<0.001 (1 in 1000).

60 + p value and the conclusion 60 Once the p value has been calculated an accurate conclusion can be made The probability that the results are due to chance cannot be higher than 0.05 (p 0.05) This means that the probability that the results are due to the IV is 95% The IV has had a very strong impact on the DV Any p value over 0.05 means that the chances are too high, the results are inconclusive and must be rejected

61 + Conclusions & Generalisations 61 CONCLUSION a decision or judgment about what the meaning of the results obtained from an investigation. Conclusions can be expressed in two ways Whether or not the hypothesis is supported or rejected As a generalisation GENERALISATION a decision or judgment about how widely the findings of a study can be applied to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn. Conclusions are based on the results obtained and must consider the potential extraneous and confounding variables and any other problems with the study.

62 + Ethical Principles in Research 62 The term ETHICS refers to standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct. Essentially, ethical standards help us to make judgments about which behaviours are appropriate ( right ) and inappropriate ( wrong ). Ethical standards and considerations also apply to researchers, how they conduct their research and all other aspects of the research. The way human (and non-human) participants in any research study are to be treated is determined by ethical guidelines. These guidelines help to ensure that the wellbeing and rights of research participants are protected during their involvement in a research study and following the study.

63 + Participants Rights 63 Participants Rights Confidentiality Voluntary Participation Informed Consent Withdrawal Rights Deception in Research Debriefing

64 + Role of the Researcher 64 Research must be conducted or supervised only by individuals or teams with experience, qualifications and competence appropriate to the research. The researcher is responsible for ensuring that the research is conducted in such a manner that the wellbeing of research participants is the main concern and that participants are not placed at risk of injury or harm in any way. They must not behave in a manner that brings disrepute to the psychology profession or to scientific research

65 + Ethics Committees 65 Ethics committees review, or assess, research proposals for approval purposes, and then monitor the conduct of the research (if it is approved) to ensure all relevant ethical guidelines are adopted and followed.

66 + Role of Ethics Committees 66 ensuring the research study is designed and conducted in ethically appropriate ways and in full accordance with relevant National Statement guidelines ensuring the researcher is adequately experienced and qualified (or the researcher is supervised by a qualified person if there are concerns about the their experience and qualifications) monitoring approved research (e.g. through progress reports, random inspections of research sites, interviews with participants) handling complaints (e.g. from participants, the wider community) ensuring accountability of the researcher (i.e. the researcher understands, accepts and maintains responsibility for all aspects of their research).

67 + Reporting Conventions 67 Why do it? To communicate/share the results with others To enable replication of the study to test the validity & reliability of the results Reporting conventions are well-established rules about who a report is written and presented Language is formal, clear concise Written in the past tense Written in the third person (NO use of I, me, we etc) Conventions must follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition (2001) also known as the APA manual

68 + Report Writing 68 Title Abstract Introduction Includes hypothesis & background theory Method Includes description of participant allocation, materials, procedure Results Summary of data collected Discussion Hypothesis supported or rejected Generalisation Confounding variables identified References Appendices