ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT OF TRAFFIC NOISE ON HUMAN HEALTH

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 7 ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT OF TRAFFIC NOISE ON HUMAN HEALTH 7.1 INTRODUCTION Hearing is essential for well-being as well as safety. Noise induced hearing impairment may be accompanied by abnormal loudness perception (loudness recruitment), distortion (paracusis), and tinnitus. Tinnitus may be temporary or may become permanent after prolonged exposure (Lisa Goines et al., 2007). Noise pollution is a growing health concern in this country and around the world. The World Health Organization has recognized it as a major threat to human health and well-being. There is general agreement that exposure to sound levels less than 70 db does not produce hearing damage, regardless of the duration of exposure. There is also general agreement that exposure for more than 8 hours to sound levels in excess of 85 db is potentially hazardous; to place this in context, 85 db is roughly equivalent to the noise of heavy truck traffic on a busy road (Lisa Goines et al. 2007). Noise is one of the major causes of disturbed sleep. When sleep disruption becomes chronic, the results are mood changes, decrements in performance, and other long-term effects on health and well-being. Noise is a prominent feature of the environmental impact including noise from transport, industry and neighbours. Noise interferes in complex task performance, modifies social behaviour and causes annoyance. Studies of occupational and environmental noise exposure suggest an association with hypertension, whereas community studies show only weak relationships between noise and cardiovascular disease. Aircraft and road traffic noise exposure are associated with psychological symptoms but not with clinically 164

2 defined psychiatric disorder (Stansfeld S. A. et al. 2003). Exposure to continuous noise of db, particularly over a lifetime in industrial settings, can lead to a progressive loss of hearing, with an increase in the threshold of hearing sensitivity (Kryter KD, 1985). Alternatively, noise may influence health directly and not through annoyance. The response to noise may depend on characteristics of the sound, including intensity, frequency, and complexity of sound and duration of the noise. Some very common adverse effects of noise on health are recorded in the study area: 7.2 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NOISE ON HEALTH Noise and Sleep Disturbance Sleep disturbances are probably the most widespread source of annoyance caused by noise. There is both objective and subjective evidence for sleep disturbance by noise (Öhrström E et al., 1988). Exposure to noise disturbs sleep proportional to the amount of noise experienced in terms of an increased rate of changes in sleep stages and in number of awakenings. Noise can have both auditory and non-auditory deleterious effects on human health. Auditory effects include delay in falling asleep, frequent night time awakenings, alteration in sleep stages with reduction of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, and decreased depth of sleep. Although not a causative agent, increased noise is known to accelerate and intensify development of latent mental health disorders including depression, mental instability, neurosis, hysteria, and psychosis. It is also a major environmental cause of annoyance leading to diminished quality of life and whole of this may lead the sleeping disorders. With the noise from the highways, residents take longer to fall asleep and have less deep sleep, this leads young to middle-aged group became more like the year old group in their depth of sleep. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is also reduced. If both deep and REM sleep are physiologically and psychologically important, this type of alteration may well be damaging. But this remains to be substantiated by further study. 165

3 7.2.2 Noise and Cardiovascular Diseases A growing body of evidence suggests that noise pollution may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Acute exposure to noise activates nervous and hormonal responses, leading to increased blood pressure and heart rate and to vasoconstriction. If the exposure is of sufficient intensity, there is an increase in heart rate and peripheral resistance; an increase in blood pressure, and increased levels of stress hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol). The strongest evidence for the effect of noise on the cardiovascular system comes from studies of blood pressure in occupational settings. In various studies, noise exposure has also been an indicator of exposure to other factors, both physical and psychosocial, which are also associated with high blood. It has been postulated that noise acts as a nonspecific biologic stressor eliciting reactions that prepare the body for a fight or fight response (Cohen S et al., 1981). For this reason, noise can trigger both endocrine and autonomic nervous system responses that affect the cardiovascular system and thus may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. These effects begin to be seen with long-term daily exposure to noise levels above 65 db or with acute exposure to noise levels above 80 to 85 db Psychological Effects below: Various psychological effects of noise on health are discussed as presented Noise annoyance Annoyance reactions are often associated with the degree of interference that any noise causes in everyday activities, which probably precedes and leads on to annoyance. Overall, it seems that conversation, watching television or listening to the radio (all involving speech communication) are the activities most disturbed by 166

4 aircraft noise; while traffic noise, if present at night, is most disturbing for sleep. Annoyance is defined as emotional state of displeasure associated with any condition realized by a person or a group of persons, adversely affecting them. The lower frequency noise is observed to produce more annoyance; it affects any person s behaviour directly and indirectly. The direct effects of annoyance include aggressive behaviour associated with pre-existing anger and alcohol or other psychoactive agents. Indirect effects of annoyance are lack of peace of mind, enjoyment of one s own property and the enjoyment of loneliness (M A K Shahid et al., 2013) Work Performance Noise can affect the work performance of human being directly and indirectly. Those activities which require more concentration such as proof-reading and complex analysis are found to be noise sensitive. Events involving impulsive noise can produce lack of performance ability because of startle effect. Continuous exposure to noise affects the memory. Not only occasional memory is affected but also material observation memory is decreased (M A K Shahid et al., 2013). It is reported that the children who are subjected to the aircraft noise during childhood have reading acquisition and reduce motivational capabilities Psychiatric disorder It has been postulated that noise exposure creates annoyance which then leads on to more serious psychological effects. This pathway remains unconfirmed; rather it seems that noise causes annoyance and, independently, mental ill-health also increases annoyance. A more complex model incorporates the interaction between the person and their environment (Passchier-Vermeer W., 1993). In this model, the person readjusts their behaviour in noisy conditions to reduce exposure. An important addition is the inclusion of the appraisal of noise in terms of danger, loss of environmental quality, meaning of the noise, challenges for environmental control, etc. and coping (the ability to alter behaviour to deal with the stressor). 167

5 Cognitive Impairment in Children Children exposed to increased noise have shown lower academic achievement in various forms including reading, learning, problem solving, concentration, social and emotional development, and motivation Mental Health Although not a causative agent, increased noise is known to accelerate and intensify development of latent mental health disorders including depression, mental instability, neurosis, hysteria, and psychosis. It is also a major environmental cause of annoyance leading to deteriorating quality of life Noise and Hearing Loss The type of hearing loss is any degree from partial to complete hearing loss. This loss, usually, is permanent and is not satisfactorily corrected by any devices such as, hearing aids. The loss is caused by the destruction of the delicate hair cells and their auditory nerve connections in the Organ of Corti, which is contained in the cochlea (Daniel G. Nunez, 1998). Every exposure to loud noise destroys some cells, but prolonged exposure damages a larger amount of cells, and ultimately collapses the Organ of Corti, which causes deafness (Daniel G. Nunez, 1998). Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a type of sensorineural hearing loss that is second only to age induced hearing loss or presbyacusis (Rabinowitz P., 2000). It occurs by exposure to recreational and occupational noise that results in the damage of the hair cells of the cochlea in the inner ear. In general, the amount of noise required to cause permanent damage from chronic exposure is anything equivalent to 10 years or more at a level of 85 db for more than 8 hours a day (Rabinowitz P., 2000) and (NIDCD Fact Sheet, 2007). 168

6 7.3 LOCATION WISE IMPACT OF TRAFFIC NOISE IN STUDY AREA In the present research work, common health problems caused by traffic noise have been recorded during the time of data collection but no clinical (Lab and Radiology based) tests have been carried out. Presence or absence of existing diseases has been found out by seeking information from the respondents with the help of questionnaire method. An attempt has been made to determine the relationship between noise and health problems. Therefore, data of effect on health of the residents and equivalent noise level has been tabulated. Coefficient of correlation has been determined between noise levels and the effect on health of the residents. The coefficient of correlation has been calculated as It indicates that there is good correlation between traffic noise and its effect on health. The perceptions of residents regarding the traffic noise and related health hazards at study area locations are presented in following sections Soami Nagar During the interview at Soami Nagar, it has been observed that hundred percent people are annoyed due to traffic noise. Out of the surveyed people, 69.4% of the total samples revealed that traffic noise situation is very noisy and 92% people kept their doors and windows closed during day and night both time to protect them from being exposed to traffic noise as presented in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 respectively. People are also facing health problems due to the exposure of traffic noise. The 45.2% respondents are facing irritation/psychological problems followed by 16.1% of sleeping disorder and11.3% of blood pressure as presented in Table 7.3 and Figure 7.1. Traffic noise also hampered their activities inside home. The 32.2% feel disturbed in watching TV, 31.4% respondents are affected due to exposure of noise during conversation coupled with disturbance in sleep accounting for 18.5% and startling accounting for 6.2% as shown in Table 7.4 and Figure

7 Table 7.1: Level of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar Level of traffic noise % Response Very calm 0.0 Quite calm 0.0 Quite noisy 0.0 Noisy 30.6 Very noisy 69.4 Table 7.2: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar Closure of doors & windows Day only 0.0 Night only 8.1 Day & night both % response Table 7.3: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar Health Problems % Response Deaf 0.0 Hyperacusis 0.0 Irritation/ Psychological Suffering 45.2 Blood pressure 11.3 Sleeping disorder 16.1 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

8 Table 7.4: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar Activities % Response Startling 6.2 Disturbance in watching TV 32.2 Disturbance in Conversation 31.4 Disturbance in sleep 18.5 Not Hampers 11.7 Figure 7.1: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar Figure 7.2: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Soami Nagar CSIR Apartment Ashram It has been observed that all the respondents are annoyed due to exposure of traffic noise at CSIR Apartment. Out of the surveyed people, 57.1% revealed that traffic noise situation is noisy while 87.5% people used to keep their doors and windows closed in day and night both time respectively to protect them from traffic noise as presented in Table 7.5 and Table 7.6. People experience health problems due to traffic noise. It is observed that 55.4% respondents are exposed to noise problems causing irritation/psychological sufferings followed by 14.3% with sleeping disorder and 10.7% of blood pressure as presented in Table 7.7 and Figure 7.3. Traffic noise also hampered their activities inside home while the 29.4% respondents find it difficulty in conversation. The remaining residents suffers from 171

9 the disturbance in watching TV, disturbance in sleep and startling accordingly for 26.8%, 19.3% and 7.8% respectively as shown in Table 7.8 and Figure 7.4. Table 7.5: Level of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Level of traffic noise % response Very calm 0 Quite calm 0.0 Quite noisy 1.8 Noisy 57.1 Very noisy 41.1 Table 7.6: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Closure of doors & windows % response Day only 0.0 Night only 12.5 Day & night both Table 7.7: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Health Problems % Response Deaf 0 Hyperacusis 0 Irritation/ Psychological Suffering 55.4 Blood pressure 10.7 Sleeping disorder 14.3 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

10 Table 7.8: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Activities % Response Startling 7.8 Disturbance in watching TV 26.8 Disturbance in Conversation 29.4 Disturbance in sleep 19.3 Not Hampers 16.7 Figure 7.3: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Figure 7.4: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CSIR Apartment Madangir It is observed that the 93.1% people are annoyed due to traffic noise at Madangir. Out of the surveyed people, 37.5% revealed that traffic noise situation is noisy while the 51.4% people used to keep their doors and windows closed in night time only to protect them from traffic noise as presented in Table 7.9 and Table 7.10 respectively. People are exposed to health problems due to traffic noise. The respondents get exposed to traffic noise causing irritation/psychological problems, blood pressure and sleeping disorder accordingly for 41.7%, 4.2% and 8.3% respectively as presented in Table 7.11 and Figure 7.5. The exposure of traffic noise generally hampered their activities inside home. In this regard, the 29.5% respondents are disturbed during conversation followed by watching TV with 173

11 24.8%, disturbance in sleeping with 11.3% and startling with 5.3% as shown in Table 7.12 and Figure 7.6. Table 7.9: Level of Traffic Noise at Madangir Level of traffic noise % response Very calm 0.0 Quite calm 4.2 Quite noisy 51.4 Noisy 37.5 Very noisy 6.9 Table 7.10: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Madangir Closure of doors & windows % response Day only 33.3 Night only 51.4 Day & night both 15.3 Table 7.11: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Madangir Health Problems % Response Deaf 0 Hyperacusis 0 Irritation/ Psychological Suffering 41.7 Blood pressure 4.2 Sleeping disorder 8.3 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

12 Table 7.12: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Madangir Activities % Response Startling 5.3 Disturbance in watching TV 24.8 Disturbance in Conversation 29.5 Disturbance in sleep 11.3 Not Hampers 29.1 Figure 7.5: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Madangir Figure 7.6: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Madangir New Friends Colony (NFC) During the interview at New Friends Colony, it has been observed that 95.5% people are annoyed due to traffic noise. Out of the surveyed people, 66.2% revealed that traffic noise situation is noisy and 50.6% people usually kept their doors and windows closed in day and night both time to protect them from traffic noise as presented in Table 7.13 and Table 7.14 respectively. People get affected due to exposure of traffic noise causing health problems. These include the 40.3% respondents with facing irritation/psychological problems followed by 10.4% with sleeping disorder and 9.1% with blood pressure as presented in Table 7.15 and Figure 7.7. Traffic noise also hampered their activities inside home. These include the 21.2% with disturbance in conversation, 17.6% with disturbance in watching TV, 11.9% with disturbance in sleeping and 3.6% respondent with startling as presented in Table 7.16 and Figure

13 Table 7.13: Level of Traffic Noise at New Friend Colony Level of traffic noise % response Very calm 0.0 Quite calm 0.0 Quite noisy 33.8 Noisy 66.2 Very noisy 0.0 Table 7.14: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at New Friend Colony Closure of doors & windows % response Day only 0 Night only 49.4 Day & night both 50.6 Table 7.15: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at New Friends Colony Health Problems % Response Deaf 0 Hyperacusis 0 Irritation/Psychological Suffering 40.3 Blood pressure 9.1 Sleeping disorder 10.4 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

14 Table 7.16: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at New Friends Colony Activities % Response Startling 3.6 Disturbance in watching TV 17.6 Disturbance in Conversation 21.2 Disturbance in sleep 11.9 Not Hampers 45.7 Figure 7.7: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at New Friend Colony Figure 7.8: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at New Friend Colony CR Park It has been observed that 83.3% people are annoyed due to traffic noise at CR Park. Out of the surveyed people, 70.3% revealed that traffic noise situation is quite noisy and 43.8% people kept their doors and windows closed in night only to protect them from traffic noise as presented in Table 7.17 and Table 7.18 respectively. People are also facing health problems due to traffic noise. The 21.9% respondents are facing irritation/psychological problems followed by 6.3% of blood pressure. The 71.9% respondents also revealed that they are not having any health problem due to traffic noise as presented in Table 7.19 and Figure 7.9. Traffic noise also hampered their activities inside home. The 13.8% respondents felt 177

15 disturbed in watching TV followed by 9.4% felt disturbed in conversation and 1.2% felt startling as shown in Table 7.20 and Figure Table 7.17: Level of Traffic Noise at CR Park Level of traffic noise % response Very calm 0.0 Quite calm 15.6 Quite noisy 70.3 Noisy 14.1 Very noisy 0.0 Table 7.18: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CR Park Closure of doors & windows % response Day only 53.8 Night only 43.8 Day & night both Table 7.19: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CR Park Health Problems % Response Deaf 0 Hyperacusis 0 Irritation/Psychological Suffering 21.9 Blood pressure 6.3 Sleeping disorder 0.0 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

16 Table 7.20: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CR Park Activities % Response Startling 1.2 Disturbance in watching TV 13.8 Disturbance in Conversation 9.4 Disturbance in sleep 0 Not Hampers 75.6 Figure 7.9: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CR Park Figure 7.10: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at CR Park Kalkaji It has been observed that 86.6% people are annoyed due to traffic noise at Kalkaji. Out of the surveyed people, 43.9% revealed that traffic noise situation is very noisy and 70.2% people kept their doors and windows closed in night time only to protect them from traffic noise as presented in Table 7.21 and Table 7.22 respectively. People are also facing health problems due to traffic noise. It is observed that 5.3% respondents are facing blood pressure and 3.5% facing irritation/psychological sufferings as presented in Table 7.23 and Figure The exposure of traffic noise also hampered their activities inside home. The 20.5% respondents are disturbed during watching TV, 12.7% felt disturbed in 179

17 conversation, 4.6% felt disturbed in sleeping and 2.2% felt startling as shown in Table 7.24 and Figure Table 7.21: Level of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji Level of traffic noise % response Very calm 0.0 Quite calm 15.8 Quite noisy 15.8 Noisy 24.6 Very noisy 43.9 Table 7.22: Closing of Doors and Windows due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji Closure of doors & windows % of response Day only 8.8 Night only 70.2 Day & night both Table 7.23: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji Health Problems % Response Deaf 0 Hyperacusis 0 Irritation/Psychological Suffering 3.5 Blood pressure 5.3 Sleeping disorder 0.0 Premature Child Birth 0.0 Any other 0.0 No problem

18 Table 7.24: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji Activities % Response Startling 2.2 Disturbance in watching TV 20.5 Disturbance in Conversation 12.7 Disturbance in sleep 4.6 Not Hampers 60 Figure 7.11: Effect on Health due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji Figure 7.12: Hampering of Activities within House due to Exposure of Traffic Noise at Kalkaji All Locations (Health) The location-wise health problems to residents are presented in Figure The study revealed that maximum residents (80%) are affected due to constant exposure of traffic noise at CSIR Apartment-Ashram followed by Soami Nagar, New Friends Colony, Madangir, CR Park and Kalkaji of the order of 73%, 60%, 56%, 28% and 9% respectively. The CSIR Apartment-Ashram and Soami Nagar are located along arterial roads; these roads are also carrier of long distance traffic. The Equivalent Traffic Noise (L eq ) has been observed to be high at these locations, resulting in serious health problems to the residents. 181

19 Figure 7.13: Location-wise Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise Figure 7.14 shows health problems at all the locations. It can be seen that maximum residents are victims of suffering from irritation/ psychological related sufferings of the order of 35% followed by the sleeping disorder and blood pressure of the order of 8% each. It has also been noted that 49% residents revealed that they are not having any health problem due to traffic noise. Figure 7.14: Health Problems due to Exposure of Traffic Noise (All Locations) Dose Response Analysis The dose-response relationship, or exposure response relationship, demonstrates the change in effect on an organism caused by differing levels of exposure (or doses) to a stressor after a certain exposure time. This may apply to 182

20 % Annoyed individuals (e.g.: a small amount has no significant effect, a large amount is fatal), or to populations (e.g.: how many people or organisms are affected at different levels of exposure). The study of dose response, and development of dose response models, is central to determining "safe" and "hazardous" levels and dosages for drugs, potential pollutants, and other substances to which humans or other organisms are exposed. These conclusions are often the basis for public policy. Dose response relationships generally depend on the exposure time and exposure route (e.g., inhalation, dietary intake); quantifying the response after a different exposure time or for a different route leads to a different relationship and possibly different conclusions on the effects of the stressor under consideration [website (1)]. In order to find out the percentage of annoyed residents with respect to equivalent traffic noise levels (L eq ), the dose-response curves of all locations/study area have been prepared in the present research work. The information on annoyance levels of residents are elicited by using five points verbal annoyance scale varying from tolerable (as 1) to extremely intolerable (as 5) as explained in section 6.6 of Chapter 6. The question about their annoyance level is put forward to the residents living along the road, who are severely exposed traffic noise problems. The Dose-response curve of Soami Nagar is shown in Figure It depicts that 100% residents are annoyed with traffic noise. The Dose-Response Curve (Day)-Soami Nagar annoyance level of residents reached up to highest level of extremely intolerable at this location Leq (dba) Figure 7.15: Dose-Response Curve at Soami Nagar 183

21 % Annoyed % Annoyed % Annoyed Dose-response curve of CSIR Apartment-Ashram is shown in Figure It depicts that 100% residents are annoyed with traffic noise. The annoyance level of residents reached up to highest level of extremely intolerable at this location Dose-Response Curve (Day)-CSIR Leq (dba) Figure 7.16: Dose-Response Curve at CSIR Apartment Dose-response curve of Madangir is presented in Figure It depicts that only 82% residents are annoyed. The highest annoyance level of residents reached only up to very intolerable at this location. Dose-Response Curve (Day)-Madangir Leq (dba) Figure 7.17: Dose-Response Curve at Madangir Dose-response curve of New Friends Colony is presented in Figure It depicts that only 87% residents are annoyed. The annoyance level of residents reached up to highest level of extremely intolerable at this location. Dose-Response Curve (Day)-New Friends Colony Leq (dba) Figure 7.18: Dose-Response Curve at New Friends Colony 184

22 % Annoyed % Annoyed Dose-response curve of CR Park is presented in Figure It depicts that only 79% residents are annoyed. The highest annoyance level of residents reached only up to very intolerable at this location Dose-Response Curve (Day)-CR Park Leq (dba) Figure 7.19: Dose-Response Curve at CR Park Dose-response curve of Kalkaji is presented in Figure It depicts that only 80% residents are Dose-Response Curve (Day)-Kalkaji annoyed. The highest annoyance level 50 of residents reached only up to very 30 intolerable at this location Leq (dba) Figure 7.20: Dose-Response Curve at Kalkaji The above analysis depicts that the residents of Soami Nagar and CSIR Apartment are severely affected due to traffic noise and least affected residents belong to CR Park. Overall, 89% residents are annoyed by traffic noise in day time and 68% are annoyed in night time. 7.4 SUMMARY Adverse effects of noise on health like noise and sleeping disturbance, noise and cardiovascular diseases, psychological effects i.e. noise annoyance, work performance, psychiatric disorder, cognitive impairment in children, mental health and noise & hearing loss in general and adverse effect on the residents of the study area in particular are discussed. It is observed that residents living along the 185

23 arterial and collector roads are affected by health complications arising due to increased traffic noise. Strong correlation has been observed between noise and health problems as coefficient of correlation works out to Maximum residents are suffering from irritation/psychological sufferings, followed by sleeping disorder and blood pressure of the order of 35%, 8% and 8% respectively. It is also to be noted that 49% residents reported that they are not suffering from any health problems due to traffic noise. Residents living along the roads in the study area are disturbed as the inside activities are disturbed in home. Maximum numbers of residents stated that they are feeling disturbed while watching TV, followed by disturbance in conversation, disturbance in sleep and startled due to the above factors of the noise of the order of 22.7%, 19.7%, 8.1% and 6.5% respectively. The 43% residents informed that their activities are not hampered by traffic noise. 186

24 REFERENCES 1. Babisch W., Transportation Noise and Cardiovascular Risk, Review and Synthesis of Epidemiological Studies, Dose-Effect Curve and Risk Estimation, WaBoLu-Hefte 01/06, Umweltbundesamt, Cohen S, Weinstein N, Non-auditory effects of noise on behaviour and health, Journal of Social Issues 1981; 37: Daniel G. Nunez, Cause and Effects of Noise Pollution Interdisciplinary Minor in Global Sustainability, University of California, Interdisciplinary Minor in Global Sustainability, University of California, Irvine Student papers, Spring Kryter KD. The Effects of Noise on Man, 2 nd Edition Orlando, FL: Academic Press, Lisa Goines, RN, Louis Hagler, Noise Pollution: A Modern Plague South Med Journal 2007; 100(3): M A K Shahid, H Bashir, Psychological and physiological effects of noise pollution on the residents of major cities of Punjab (Pakistan) Peak Journal of Physical and Environmental Science Research Vol. 1(4), August, 2013, NIDCD Fact Sheet: Noise-Induced Hearing Loss. NIH Publication No Updated in April 2007 ( 8. Noise & Health Valuing the Human Health Impacts of Environmental Noise Exposure The Second Report of the IGCB(N), A Response by The Interdepartmental Group on Costs and Benefits Noise Subject Group (IGCB(N)), July Öhrström E, Rylander R, Bjorkman N., Effects of Night Time Road Traffic Noise-An Overview of Laboratory and Field Studies on Noise Dose and Subjective Noise Sensitivity. J Sound Vib 1988; 127: Passchier-Vermeer W., Noise and Health, The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands, No A93/02E., Rabinowitz, P. Noise-Induced Hearing Loss, American Family Physician. May 2000; 61: ,

25 12. Stansfeld S. A. and Matheson M.P, Noise pollution: Non-auditory Effects on Health, British Medical Bulletin 2003; 68: Website(1)- relationship 188