Not final - sample taken from ambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide

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1 ambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide

2 Get the most from this book Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your understanding. This Revision Guide will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision and don t hesitate to write in it personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise. Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 6 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: revised and understood a topic tested yourself practised the exam-style questions You can also keep track of your revision by ticking off each topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic. My revision planner 8 11 key components of core studies The biological approach 10 Canli et al. (2000) Brain scans and emotions Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion The cognitive approach 17 Andrade (2009) Doodling Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Eyes test Laney et al. (2008) False memory The biological approach Brain scans and emotions Authors: Canli et al. (2000) Key terms: Brain scans and emotion Approach: Biological approach Background/context: people are more likely to recall emotional experiences than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons: some people are more responsive to emotional experiences than others The biological approach, page 70 A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is invasive: the scanner detects a radioactive substance injected into the body. A magnetic resonance Features to help you succeed Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on how to maximise your chances. Common misconception Advice is given on how to avoid the common misconceptions students often have. Evaluation The strengths and weaknesses of the core studies and specialist options are assessed throughout the book. These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the back of the book. Definitions and key words Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they appear. Key words from the syllabus are highlighted in bold for you throughout the book. Exam-style questions Exam-style questions are provided for each topic. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills. These quick cross-references to other parts of the book will help your revision.

3 My revision planner 8 11 key components of core studies The biological approach 10 Canli et al. (2000) Brain scans and emotions Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion The cognitive approach 17 Andrade (2009) Doodling Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Eyes test Laney et al. (2008) False memory The learning approach 26 Bandura et al. (1961) Aggression Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning The social approach 33 Milgram (1963) Obedience Piliavin et al. (1969) Subway Samaritans Yamamoto et al. (2012) Chimpanzee helping Research methods 2.1 The five main research methods 43 Experiments Self-reports Case studies Observations Correlations Methodological aspects of the research process 55 Hypotheses and aims Samples and sampling techniques Ethics (human and animal) Types of data (quantitative and qualitative) Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective)

4 3 Approaches and issues and debates 3.1 Approaches 70 The biological approach The cognitive approach The learning approach The social approach Issues and debates 73 The application of psychology to everyday life Individual and situational explanations Nature versus nurture The use of children in psychological research The use of animals in psychological research AS examination guidance/questions and answers 5 Specialist options 5.1 Methods, issues and debates 88 Cultural bias Reductionism Psychometrics Determinism (and free will) Longitudinal studies Psychology and abnormality 93 Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders Bipolar and related disorders Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders Anxiety disorders Obsessive compulsive and related disorders Psychology and consumer behaviour 111 The physical environment The psychological environment Consumer decision-making The product Advertising My revision planner 5

5 5.4 Psychology and health 138 The patient practitioner relationship Adherence to medical advice Pain Stress Health promotion Psychology and organisations 157 Motivation to work Leadership and management Group behaviour in organisations Organisational work conditions Satisfaction at work A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 6

6 1.1 The biological approach Brain scans and emotions Authors: Canli et al. (2000) Key terms: Brain scans and emotion Approach: Biological approach Background/context: people are more likely to recall emotional experiences than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons: some people are more responsive to emotional experiences than others some people had an enhanced emotional state during the scanning the amygdala is sensitive to the emotional intensity of a stimulus Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of the amygdala and lead to better recall than less emotionally intense stimuli. Method: laboratory experiment. Variables: IV intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense. DV the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a pixel count. Design: all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, so the design is repeated measures. Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten right-handed healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is selfselecting (although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.) Females were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically and are more likely to report intense emotional experiences. Apparatus: A functional magnetic resonance image (fmri) scanner which, unlike a PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of activation and non-activation in the brain. 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). Arousal ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing). Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order of the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds with seconds in between when the participants would focus on a fixation cross (to keep them looking at the same spot). The biological approach, page 70 A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is invasive: the scanner detects a radioactive substance injected into the body. A magnetic resonance image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no injection and no radioactivity) and uses magnets to record changes in blood flow in the brain. Laboratory experiments, page 43 Repeated measures design, page 45 1 Describe what is meant by a repeated measures design. 2 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as this. Experimental controls, page 47 10

7 Procedure: 1 Scanning: participants were settled in the scanner, told to fixate on the cross, and when they saw a picture, press one of four buttons with their right hand. The buttons ranged from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense. The same procedure was repeated until all 96 pictures had been viewed. 2 Testing: 3 weeks later the participants completed a recognition test in the laboratory. They viewed all 96 previously seen pictures and an additional 48 new scenes (called foils) that were matched to the original 96 for valence and arousal. Responses were coded as follows: 1 for not remembered/forgotten; 2 for familiar; and 3 for remembered with certainty. Data: the data were quantitative: the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a pixel count Findings: 1 Participants self-report ratings of emotional intensity (scale 0 3) were spread across the rating scale with 29% scoring 0, 22% 1, 24% 2, and 25% 3 (see Figure 1). Percentage activation Types of data, page 60 Rating 0 Rating 1 Rating 2 Rating 3 3 Describe two types of quantitative data that were gathered. The biological approach, page 70 Correlations, page 53 Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 Think about a real-world application of this core study Stimulus presentation period Scan frame Figure 1 Correlation of scan frame, participants intensity ratings and percentage activation of amygdala 2 Amygdala activation was significantly bilaterally (both sides) correlated with ratings of emotional arousal. In Figure 1, rating 3 shows much more activation that ratings 2, 1 or 0. 3 Memory recall was much better for pictures rated 3 (more emotionally intense) than pictures rated 0, 1 or 2. 3 Left amygdala activation (but not right) predicted whether an individual picture would be forgotten, appear familiar or be remembered. 4 Left amygdala activation was also found to correlate with the emotional intensity of the memory. 5 Other brain locations in the frontal and temporal regions also correlated with emotional experience and subsequent memory. 4 Give an assumption of the biological approach using an example from this study. The core studies 11

8 Participants and sampling technique: initially there were nine participants, but two only slept for 1 night and two for 2 nights before exercising their right to withdraw. Five participants completed between 6 and 17 nights. The participants slept in the laboratory at the University of Chicago (USA). The sampling technique is not stated by Dement and Kleitman; there are no details about how the participants knew about the study or whether they were students. Apparatus: sleep laboratory with equipment: bed, electrodes on scalp (EEG) and electrodes around eyes (EOG) connected to recording device, bell, tape-recorder. Note that no muscle movements (EMG) were recorded in this study. Controls: all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a depressant) or caffeine (a stimulant). All participants were asked to report to the laboratory at their normal bedtime. The way in which participants were woken (by a bell) and the way in which their dreams were recorded (tape-recorder) were standardised. Procedure: 1 Participants arrived at the sleep laboratory at their normal bedtime. They went to bed in an individual room with electrodes attached to the eye and scalp areas. The electrodes were connected to the recording device in the room next door. 2 As sleep began, the experimenter observed the EEG record and noted when a participant entered REM sleep. During REM sleep, the experimenter pressed the button to ring the bell situated next to the participant to wake them. If a dream was recalled, the details were spoken into the tape-recorder. The same procedure was followed when a participant was in NREM sleep. 3 The same procedure was adopted when the experimenter wanted to test the duration of REM sleep participants were woken after 5 minutes or 15 minutes sleep. Data: the data were quantitative (e.g. instances of dream recall, dream length estimations and number of words in each dream narrative) and qualitative (e.g. descriptions of dreams). Results: Table 1.1 Aim 1: instances of dream recall after awakenings during periods of REM or periods of NREM Rapid eye movements (REM) No rapid eye movements (NREM) Participant Dream recall No recall Dream recall No recall DN IR KC WD PM KK SM DM MG Total If the participants slept in their own bed rather than in a laboratory, what effect might this have on the results? Suggestion questions like Q5 ask you to think for yourself. There is no right or wrong answer. Common misconception Because sleep can be measured using EEG, EOG and EMG, it does not mean that every study uses all three. There is also an assumption that EEG, EOG and EMG are three different recording devices. They are not. For example, an EOG simply involves electrodes near the eyes attached to a device that prints the movements. 6 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as this. Experimental controls, page 47 7 Give two variables that were controlled in this study. The core studies 13

9 Table 1.2 Aim 2: results of dream-duration estimates after 5 or 15 minutes of REM Participant 5 minutes 15 minutes Right Wrong Right Wrong DN IR KC WD PM Total Findings: 1 Aim 1 supported: 152 dreams were recalled during awakening from REM sleep, with only 11 dreams recalled from awakening during NREM sleep. There were 149 instances of no recall when awakened from NREM. (See Table 1.2.) 2 Aim 2 supported: When woken after 5 minutes, 45 out of 51 estimations were correct. When woken after 15 minutes, 47 estimations out of 60 estimations were correct. (See Table 1.2.) 3 Aim 3 supported: When woken from a specific eye movement pattern, participants reported a dream that corresponded to that pattern. a Vertical movement: participants reported standing at the bottom of a cliff and hoisting things up and down; climbing a ladder and looking up and down; bouncing and throwing a basketball into the basket. b Horizontal movement: a participant reported a dream of two people throwing tomatoes at each other. c Little or no movement corresponded to dreams about looking into the distance, such as when driving a car. d Mixed movements: dreams were about people talking or watching objects close to them. 4 Aim 4 supported: the number of words used to describe a dream (dream narrative) revealed significant positive correlations (for the five participants who were tested) with the length of the REM period. Correlations were +0.6, +0.68, +0.4, and Conclusions: dreams are more likely to be reported in REM sleep. Dreams appear to happen in real time. Dream content appears to correspond to the direction in which the eyes move. Types of data, page 60 This study gathered both quantitative data and qualitative data. Make sure you know the difference between these two and can give an example of each. 8 a How was the self-report method used in this study? b How was observation used in this study? Evaluation Scientific equipment the use of scientific equipment in psychological experiments has many advantages, such as reliability (strength). It also provides qualitative data which are objective (strength), for example the equipment revealed that a participant was in REM sleep, but it cannot know whether a participant is having a dream or not (weakness). Controls controlling variables in studies is highly desirable, and cause and effect are more likely (strength). Controlling caffeine and alcohol may disrupt the sleep pattern of a participant who normally drinks alcohol or caffeine before sleeping. (weakness) Generalisations can the findings of this study be generalised to everyone? If every person in the world sleeps then these findings can be generalised (strength). Self-reports how accurate is the reporting of a dream/no dream? (weakness) The experimenters excluded fragmented reports, but a tired participant may report no dream to get back to sleep. Quantitative and qualitative data one type of quantitative data was gathered in the number of words used to describe a dream (strength). Qualitative data was gathered in the form of descriptions of dreams, such as throwing tomatoes. The biological approach, page 70 Experimental controls, page 47 Generalisations, page 68 Self-reports, page 48 Think about a real-world application of this core study. 14

10 Paper 3 Specialist options: theory Question 1 (a) What is meant by a false memory? [2] (b) Describe the conditions and procedure in Experiment 2. [4] (c) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of selfreports as used in the Braun-LaTour study. [6] Answer A (a) A false memory is where people remember events differently from the way they happened or they remember events that never happened at all. Braun-LaTour et al. successfully planted false memories of Bugs Bunny. This answer is a spot-on definition and scores full marks. Although candidates are discouraged from learning precise definitions, in response to questions like this, a learned definition will score full marks. There is even a relevant example to support the definition. (b) In Experiment 2 the researchers had three conditions: a pictorial condition with a picture of Bugs Bunny, a verbal condition with a headline and words, and a both condition that combined the verbal and the pictorial. After reading the advertisement, participants had to self-report what they could remember about the advertisement. This answer has enough detail to score full marks. Both components of the question are addressed, i.e. the conditions and the procedure. The conditions are correct because there were three of them and the answer correctly describes all three. 2/2 marks for this component. The procedure was to look at an advert and then describe what could be remembered. There could be a little more detail here, but this answer has sufficient for 2/2 marks, giving 4/4 overall. (c) Self-reports have the advantage of allowing participants to say what they think and in the study this meant that the participants would report any false memory. There is also the advantage. Weaknesses are that participants might give socially desirable answers, for example they might report false memories to please the researchers. Another weakness is that the researchers might not fully understand what the participant is saying and so record a false memory when it isn t really there. This answer has an appropriate strength but is only vaguely related to the study. The answer does not have a second strength. It looks like the person answering this question paused for thought, forgot where they were and continued with the weaknesses. Some candidates do make this error, and they fail to score marks. If you have ever done this, doodle a simple checklist where you can write everything needed in the answer and then tick off when it has been answered. For example S, S, W, W with ticks. There are two weaknesses and again these are related to the answer, but only vaguely and with little elaboration. This is a good answer, and scores 4 marks out of 6. Answer B (a) A false memory is a memory that isn t true. This is correct but it is vague, lacking elaboration, understanding or an example. This answer scores 1 mark, because the statement is correct, but there isn t enough for the second available mark to be awarded. (b) In Experiment 2 there was a number of conditions which involved some information being given to participants. The information included just words in some and just pictures in others. The procedure was to look at the advertisement and then to see if any of the false information was remembered. This answer shows a vague understanding of what the conditions involved, but is very imprecise in knowing exactly what the three conditions were. The answer scores a generous 1 mark because the answer isn t entirely wrong. For the second component of the answer the procedure is again correct but very vague and basic. As previously, this isn t wrong so it has to score 1 mark out of the 2 available. Note that this answer scores 2/4 marks overall (or 50%), which is sufficient to achieve a pass mark and low grade. Candidates should aim to score full marks and the addition of a little more detail would make a significant difference. Look at how this answer compares with answer A. (c) Self reports are: (i) good for participants to say what they think, giving the why answers; (ii) data may be both quantitative and qualitative depending on the self-report. Weaknesses are: (i) participants may provide socially desirable answers; (ii) participants may respond to demand characteristics. This is a typical answer provided by candidates in examinations. It isn t good, so don t let this be you! This answer simply lists strengths and weaknesses that have been learned. There is no elaboration to explain what each means and more importantly there is no clue as to what study is being written about. This answer shows learning, but that is the only skill on show. There are many other skills that need to be demonstrated before any more than basic marks can be awarded. The maximum mark for an answer like this is 3, but without any elaboration this answer scores 2 marks. The answer does have both strengths and weaknesses, and they are not incorrect. Question 2 (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring pain. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring pain and include a discussion of psychometric tests. [12] 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 185

11 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers Answer A (a) According to Mershey and Bogduch (1974), pain is defined as unpleasant sensory and emotional feelings along with potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. Psychologists have discovered many different types of pain. These include injury without pain, which includes episodic analgesia and congenital analgesia. The main purpose of pain is to defend yourself when you know you are hurt, for example removing your hand once you touch something hot. Secondly, pain also helps us take remedial actions, once we experience the feeling. Psychologists have discovered many theories of pain, which include the specificity and the gate-control theories. Specificity theory was discovered by Von Frey (1895) who explained that tissue damage was the only explanation of pain, whereas the gate-control theory by Melzach and Wall (1988) explained pain in terms of biological as well as psychological and social factors. It is called the biopsychological approach to pain. It explains that there s a gate in the body which either stops the pain messages or lets them travel to the brain. Since everyone has the right to no pain, psychologists first discovered the techniques for measuring pain, to ensure the remedies for it. One of the best ways to measure pain is through self-reported methods, especially clinical interviews, as self-reports can tell us about the six elements that were defined by Karoly (1965), which must be present in selfreports for example, neurophysiological factors, social factors etc. Although self-reports provide us with in-depth data, they may not always be reliable as patients might respond to demand characteristics through attentionseeking behaviour etc. Pain can be measured through psychometrics and rating scales such as one devised by Melzack, known as the McGill pain questionnaire, which includes many words that the patient must choose to describe his pain. It is one of the most widely used methods for measuring pain. The behavioural method is also another way for measuring pain and it uses tools such as the UAB pain behaviour scale, devised by Richards et al. (1987). Furthermore, psychologists have also discovered pain-measuring methods for children. One such tool was made by Varni et al, named the Varni- Thompson paediatric pain questionnaire, which has visual analogue scales, on which the children point out their indication or severity of the pain. However, children who are too young to talk cannot use this technique, so the best method for them is an observational method performed by parents or physicians. Remedial actions have also been taken and psychologists have discovered techniques for measuring pain. These include chemical treatments such as different painkillers, for example analgesics acting at the site of pain. Surgical attempts are also made but only as a last resort. Behavioural and cognitive therapies are also used, such as non-pain imagery attention diversion but these may not be helpful for everyone or every type of pain. Alternative therapies such as microwave diathermy and acupuncture are also used. Techniques using electrical stimulation are also used, which include Pens and Tens, and must be used as a last resort. This answer has fallen into the trap of answering everything that is known about pain, rather than answering the question that is asked, specifically measuring pain. This means that only the second paragraph beginning since everyone is relevant. Here, the candidate has written so much on measuring pain that for the 8 marks available the mark will be quite good. However, far too much time has been wasted on parts of an answer that score no marks at all. Candidates might be frustrated that they can t demonstrate their full knowledge, but an examination assesses far more skills than mere learning. Do not waste time writing what isn t required! On the positive side, the answer does mention a number of ways in which pain can be measured, including the MPQ and other rating scales, behavioural observations, such as Karoly and the UAB, and mentions measuring pain in children. There is a reasonable range of different measures here, and overall this answer scores 4 marks. (b) One issue is ecological validity which means whether a study is true to real life. Pain is true to real life because people experience it, so this is an advantage. Another issue is validity. Measures of pain are valid because they measure what they claim, i.e. they measure pain. Another issue is reliability and measures of pain are reliable because scientific equipment is reliable. One issue is ethics. Ethics mean that participants should leave a study in the same way as they entered and if this is not the case then the study is unethical. This sample answer is designed to show all the things not to do. Instead, you should (i) always include the named issue. If the named issue is not included, you will automatically fail to score marks. (ii) Always choose issues carefully. Sometimes the same small number of issues are used whatever the question is and whether they apply are not. It is as if candidates only know four issues, which they write about whatever the question is. (iii) Always evaluate, which means giving strengths and weaknesses, having a debate and providing evidence/examples to support that debate. Look at the formula on page 182 to see all the things that make up a decent evaluation. The answer above identifies a range of issues but does nothing more. There is nothing on psychometrics, the named issue. This answer scores 2 3 marks, again, because what is written isn t incorrect, so some basic marks have to be given. Answer B (a) There are a number of ways in which pain can be measured. One basic way is for a doctor (or nurse) to ask a patient about their pain. This clinical interview is subjective and the patient can answer any way they wish because they have no reference point. Perhaps a better way is to use a quantitative scale such as a visual analogue scale or a box which has numbers say from 1 to 10 where 1 is no pain and 10 is the worst pain ever. This gives the practitioner an idea of how bad the pain is compared to other people using the same scale. A much more detailed psychometric measure of pain is the MPQ which has four sections: where is your 186