Reinforcers to Alcohol Consumption and the Self-Control Measures among Rural and Urban Dwellers

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1 European Journal of Social Sciences ISSN Vol. 34 No 3 October, 2012, pp EuroJournals Publishing, Inc Reinforcers to Alcohol Consumption and the Self-Control Measures among Rural and Urban Dwellers Chiejina EN Odira CC Okafor CN Sibeudu FT Abstract This study investigated reinforcers to alcohol consumption and the self-control measures among rural and urban dwellers. A total of 260 men who indulge in alcohol consumption were selected from rural and urban areas in Anam and Onitsha respectively by purposive sampling technique. Three research questions and one null hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. The instrument used for data collection was questionnaire titled QRACSM. Mean score and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient were used to answer the research questions while t-test statistics was employed in testing the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The findings showed high level of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among both rural and urban dwellers. The result also showed that significant difference does not exist in the reinforcers to alcohol consumption between the rural and urban dwellers. Recommendations were made based on the findings from the study. Keywords: Reinforcers, Alcohol consumption, Self-control measures, Rural and Urban dwellers. Introduction The abuse of alcohol is one of the most serious problems facing every society (Oltmanns & Emery, 1995). Also, the harm associated with drinking alcohol constitutes a major public health problem in both developed and developing countries (Morgan & O Neill, 2002). World Health Organization Statistics record around 750,000 alcohol related deaths each year (WHO, 1996). In addition, alcoholrelated diseases and injuries account for 3-4% of the annual burden of disease and injury (WHO, 1996). The adverse effects of alcohol consumption are numerous. Morgan & O Neill (2002) reported that alcohol is generally found to be a significant factor in hospital admissions, road traffic deaths, 393

2 industrial accidents, accidental drowning, homicide, suicide, domestic violence, marital breakdown, absenteeism from work and child abuse. According to Cornwell (2003), alcohol is often erroneously considered a stimulant. The reason for this misconception is that after drinking alcoholic beverages, some people may become more talkative or hyperactive, euphoric, self-confident, or aggressive. This behavior, according to Cornwell (2003) is attributed to the disinhibiting effect produced by a low dose of alcohol. However, Clark, Kanas, Smith & Landry (1995) and Keltner & Folks (1995) warned that as the dose of the drug is increased adverse effects set in. Such adverse effects include sedation, impaired mental and motor functioning as well as deepening stupor with decreased stimulation response. Oltmann & Emery (1995) observed that alcoholism affects an enormous number of people in especially devastating ways, and that it also wreaks havoc with the lives of those around them. Vaillant (1983) notes that no other habit or culturally determined behavior pattern creates more medical problems than does alcohol abuse, no other social deviance leads to more somatic pathology than alcohol, and at the same time, there is no other disease in which both the aetiology and cure are more profoundly dependent upon social, economic and cultural variables than alcohol abuse. Merikangas (1990) also added that it is difficult to exaggerate the severity of health problems associated with alcohol use and abuse, and that the most obvious effects are cirrhosis of the liver and the irreversible memory deficits associated with demensia. According to Oltmann & Emery (1995), people who don t drink obviously will not develop alcoholism. Therefore, one important link in the chain of the causal events is the process of initiation. Oltmanns and Emery (1995) however explained that although a person s initial use of addictive drug is obviously an important step toward development of substance dependence, most people who drink alcohol do not develop alcoholism. The implication therefore is that continued consumption of alcohol by a person must be backed by some reinforcers, while application of self control measures over drinking would protect an individual from the health, social and psychological hazards associated with alcoholism. A reinforcer is any consequence that strengthens or increases the frequency of behavior (Ebenebe & Unachukwu, 1995). Reinforcers to alcohol consumption are those factors that make a person to indulge in compulsive alcohol consumption. Such factors include peer influence, parental influence, psychologic factors, social, commitments as well as the immediate pleasures derived from drinking (Oltmanns & Emery, 1995; Cornwell, 2003). Self-Control is a set of behaviours which is under one s control and power to direct and orchestrate with no need for interference or manipulation from others (Messina & Messina, 2007). Self-control gives the individual a sense of personal mastery, autonomy and competency over one s own life; it is the foundation for healthy coping and contributes to one accepting personal responsibility for one s life. It keeps one s life in moderation and helps one to avoid extremes in any direction, and eliminates the need for one to be manipulated, intimidated and overdependent on others (Messina & Messina, 2007). Self-control is a control issue because it keeps the Locus of control internal and removes the Locus of Control from externals in one s life. Santrock (2000) opined that Self-Control issues tend to arise in such personal life arenas like compulsive and/or addictive behaviours. Inclusive in such compulsive and addictive behaviours that pose self-control problems is alcohol intake (Feldman, 1999; Santrock, 2000; & Greene, 2003). According Cornwell (2003), addictive and compulsive behavior like alcoholism is influenced by reinforcers that tend to overcome any attempt by the victims to introduce punishers as self-control measures over their unhealthy habits. Studies reveal that young adults (both men and women) who are full time undergraduates tend to drink heavily (APA, 2000). Studies also indicate that heavy alcohol use is associated with alcohol dependence which is characterized by increased tolerance, withdrawal symptoms when alcohol is not used, unsuccessful efforts to cut down on alcohol use and interference with everyday life (APA, 2000). Oltmanns & Emery (1995) assert that tolerance and withdrawal have frequently been considered to be complementary processes. 394

3 Cornwell (2003) stated that alcohol often has been referred to as a gateway drug that eventually opens the door to illicit drug use. According to Santrock (2000), alcohol intake has immediate positive consequences because of the pleasurable feelings experienced by the consumers. Although the potential delayed consequencies are negative, the immediate consequencies are difficult to override. When the delayed consequencies are reinforcing, the immediate consequencies usually win even when the immediate consequencies are small reinforcers and the delayed consequencies are major punishers. Drinking follow a similar pattern. Cornwell (2003) asserts that alcohol intake initially may produce pleasant physical responses, desired social consequencies, increased feelings of self-confidence, energy boost and relief from tension and anxiety. Unfortunately, these consequecies reinforce further indulgence in alcohol consumption with resultant compulsive and addictive behaviours and loss of self-control among the users. Santrock (2000) further added that the immediate pleasurable consequencies of drinking override the delayed consequencies of a hangover or even alcoholism. Problem Alcohol consumption is a habit that results to alcoholism. Alcoholism is not only a social deviance but creates numerous medical disorders. Vaillant (1983) notes that there is no single symptom that defines alcoholism. According to him, a drinker may worry that he has an alcohol problem because of his impotence; his wife may drag him to an alcohol clinic because he slapped her during a blackout; once in the clinic, the doctor calls him an alcoholic because of his abnormal liver function tests and later, society labels him a drunk because of a second episode of driving while intoxicated. Many forms of violent behaviours are likely to be committed when a person is drunk and the association between crime and alcohol is rather strong (Vaillant, 1983). The problem of this study therefore is the reinforcers to compulsive alcohol consumption and the self-control measures taken by those that indulge in the habit. Research Questions What is the extent of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among rural dwellers? What is the extent of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among urban dwellers? To what extent does the self-control measures over alcohol consumption between the rural and urban dwellers relate to each other? Hypothesis Significant difference does not exist in the mean scores of the reinforcers to alcohol consumption between the rural and urban dwellers. Methodology The study was a survey. A sample of 260 men who indulge in alcohol consumption were selected by purposive sampling technique from Onitsha and Anam communities in Anambra State. The instrument used for data collection was questionnaire which was made up of two subsections to elicit information from alcohol consumers on the reinforcers to alcohol consumption as well as the self-control measures they take to overcome such habit. The instrument titled Questionnaire on Reinforcers to Alcohol Consumption and Self-Control Measures (QRACSM) was designed by the researcher in a 4-point scale ranging from 1 to 4 with strongly disagree having 1 point, Disagree 2 points, agree 3 points and strongly agree 4 points. The instrument was face validated by three experts in Clinical, Social and Personality Psychology as well as Measurement and Evaluation. These experts were given copies of 395

4 the draft instrument, research questions and hypothesis for content validation. The instrument was also subjected to reliability test by collecting data from twenty alcohol consumers in Ogbaru Local Government Area of Anambra State. The aggregate scores were calculated and crombach alpha was employed to determine the internal consistency of the items. The result showed reliability co-efficient score of The researcher used direct approach method in the data collection so as to facilitate the work. Research assistants were also used in the data collection. Mean scores, standard deviation and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient were used to answer the research questions while t-test was employed in testing the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. Result Table 1: Mean scores of the extent of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among rural dwellers. Variable Residential Location N X SD Reinforcers to Alcohol Consumption Rural Table 1 above shows that rural dwellers have mean score of with standard deviation of with regard to the reinforcers to alcohol consumption. Table 2: Mean scores of the extent of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among urban dwellers Variable Residential Location N X SD Reinforcers to alcohol consumption Urban Table 2 shows that urban dwellers have mean score of and standard deviation of with regard to reinforcers to alcohol consumption. Table 3: Relationship of the Self-Control Measures over alcohol consumption between rural and urban dwellers Variables N X SD Self-Control to alcohol consumption among rural dwellers Self-Control to alcohol consumption among urban dwellers Correlation Value Level of Significance In table 3, the mean score of the self-control measures over alcohol consumption among rural dwellers is with a standard deviation of For the urban dwellers, the mean score is with standard deviation of The result shows a correlational value of 1.00 at 0.01 level of significance. Table 4: t-test comparison of the mean scores of the reinforcers to alcohol consumption between rural and urban dwellers. Variable N X SD df t-cal t-crit Probability Reinforcersto alcohol consumption among rural dwellers P>0.05 Reinforcers to alcohol consumption among urban dwellers

5 Table 4 shows that at 0.05 level of significance and 258 degree of freedom, the calculated t- value of is less than the critical t-value of Therefore the null hypothesis which states that significant difference does not exist in the mean scores of the reinforcers to alcohol consumption between the rural and urban dwellers is accepted. Discussion The result of the study showed high mean scores in the reinforcers to alcohol consumption among rural and urban dwellers respectively (tables 1 & 2). This result shows that after drinking, both rural and urban dwellers enjoy similar consequencies that make them to indulge in compulsive alcohol consumption. Santrock (2000) stated that alcohol consumption has immediate positive consequencies because of the pleasurable feelings experienced by the consumers. Santrock (2000) and Cornwell (2003) assert that these immediate pleasurable consequencies reinforce further indulgence in alcohol consumption with resultant compulsive and addictive behaviours and loss of self-control among the users. The implication of this result is that both the rural and urban compulsive alcohol consumers are at risk of developing the delayed negative consequencies of alcohol consumption. Vaillant (1983) reports that no other habit or culturally determine behavior pattern creates more medical problems than does alcohol abuse, and that no other social deviance leads to more somatic pathology. Findings from the study show perfect-positive and high correlational value in the self-control measures over alcohol consumption between rural and urban dwellers (table 3). This result implies that self-control measures that do not curb drinking habit among urban dwellers will also yield similar result among rural dwellers. Cornwell (2003) stated that addictive and compulsive behavior like alcoholism is influenced by reinforcers that tend to overcome any attempt by the victims to introduce punishers as self-control measures over their unhealthy habits. Also, findings from the study show that significant difference does not exist in the mean scores of the reinforcers to alcohol consumption between the rural and urban dwellers (table 4). This result implies that the degree of the negative consequencies of drinking is the same among the drinkers in both rural and urban settings. According to Morgan & O Neill (2002), the harm associated with drinking alcohol constitutes a major public health problem in both developed and developing countries. Conclusions The findings from the study indicate high level of reinforcers to alcohol consumption among rural and urban dwellers. Recommendations Government should mount public campaigns on the limits of sensible drinking for adults and young people. In addition, public campaigns should be mounted on the health and social dangers of compulsive and addictive alcohol consumption. Also, therapies for alcoholism should not only aim at stopping or reducing drinking habits among the users, but the problem Or interpersonal difficulties that contribute to the client s use of alcohol should be addressed so as to be able to successfully resolve the drug/substance problem. References [1] American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders (4 th ed.). Washington DC.: American Psychiatric Association. 397

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