Impact of Alcohol Skills Training Program on College Fraternity Members' Drinking Behaviors

Transcription

1 Georgia Southern University Digital Southern Electronic Theses & Dissertations Graduate Studies, Jack N. Averitt College of Spring 2012 Impact of Alcohol Skills Training Program on College Fraternity Members' Drinking Behaviors Katherine Joy Hamm Georgia Southern University Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Hamm, Katherine Joy, "Impact of Alcohol Skills Training Program on College Fraternity Members' Drinking Behaviors" (2012). Electronic Theses & Dissertations This dissertation (open access) is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies, Jack N. Averitt College of at Digital Southern. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Southern. For more information, please contact

2 IMPACT OF ALCOHOL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM ON COLLEGE FRATERNITY MEMBERS DRINKING BEHAVIORS by K. JOY HAMM (Under the Direction of James Green) ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Alcohol Skills Training Program on college fraternity members drinking behaviors and to attempt to ascertain what elements of the program may lead to change in behavior. A secondary purpose was to try to understand the role that chapter culture might play in the success of the program in changing college fraternity members drinking behaviors. A mixed methods approach, with the results of quantitative data analysis informing the qualitative portion of the study, was utilized by the researcher. The researcher in this study did not find evidence to support ASTP as an effective alcohol education program for reducing high-risk drinking and its associated negative consequences among fraternity members. However, the researcher did identify certain elements of the ASTP program which do seem to be viewed as useful by members of college fraternities and that facilitator style was viewed as very important by participants. The findings from this study enabled the researcher to make several recommendations regarding alcohol education within the fraternity and sorority community. INDEX WORDS: Alcohol Skills Training Program, Fraternities, Alcohol education, College students, Drinking 1

3 IMPACT OF ALCOHOL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM ON COLLEGE FRATERNITY MEMBERS DRINKING BEHAVIORS by K. JOY HAMM B.A., Lenoir-Rhyne University, 1995 M.A., University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 2005 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Georgia Southern University in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION STATESBORO, GEORGIA

4 2012 K. JOY HAMM All Rights Reserved 3

5 IMPACT OF ALCOHOL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM ON COLLEGE FRATERNITY MEMBERS DRINKING BEHAVIORS by K. JOY HAMM Major Professor: Committee: James Green Stephen Jenkins Joanne Chopak-Foss Electronic Version Approved: April

6 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my Nana, Geneva Shepherd, to thank her for the encouragement and love she has always shown me and the appreciation for life-long learning that she instilled in me. 5

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Nothing in my educational career would have been possible without the love, support, and encouragement of my parents, Robert and Jean Hamm. Words cannot express the deep gratitude I feel for all that they have done to get me to this place. I have benefited greatly from the support of wonderful faculty in College of Education at Georgia Southern University. The learning opportunities and support they provided throughout my doctoral process were invaluable. This dissertation definitely would not have been possible without the direction and encouragement of my committee chair, Dr. James Green. His wisdom, constantly positive attitude, and kind words made what could have been a difficult process so much easier. I feel truly fortunate to not only have been a student of his in the classroom but to have benefited from his guidance throughout the writing process. Many thanks go to Dr. Steven Jenkins for his patience with me as I navigated the quantitative portion of my research. The time he took to sit with me and explain research methods was not only valuable during the dissertation process but will be to me in my future as well. Dr. Joanne Chopak-Foss also added greatly to my committee. I would like to thank her for providing editorial and content feedback that helped me to develop a wellwritten dissertation. Without the support of the leadership of the national men s fraternity involved in this study, my dissertation research would not have been possible. I would be remiss if I 6

8 did not thank their national staff for allowing me access to their chapter members and encouraging their members participation in the study. To the presidents and members of the chapters involved in the study, thank you for your patience and understanding with my many s asking you to complete the surveys and for your willingness to answer honestly questions about your alcohol use. Thanks to Dr. Georj Lewis who served as my supervisor, mentor, and friend both in the Dean of Student Office and throughout my dissertation process. He held me to a standard that required excellence and demanded that I obtain my next degree. The staff that worked under my supervision at Georgia Southern University during this process also deserves my gratitude. They went through it all with me, provided kind of words of encouragement, and made coming to work every day a joy. I would not be the person I am today were it not for all of the college students I have had the privilege of working with throughout the last ten years. I am so thankful that I get to spend my time as a student affairs professional. There are too many to name here, but thank you, thank you, thank you to all the girlfriends who supported me during this process and have been there to celebrate my successes along the way. And, finally, thanks to Kevin Keating for believing in me, telling me I could finish even when I sometimes did not want to, and for always making me laugh! 7

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.12 Background 15 Statement of Problem Research Questions Significance of Problem Research Procedures.. 23 Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions...25 Key Definitions..27 Summary...29 II LITERATURE REVIEW College Student Alcohol Use Use Among Fraternity and Sorority Members Alcohol Education Programs Limitations of Research to Date...60 Recommendations for Future Research Summary III METHODS Research Questions Research Design

10 Population/Sample 69 Instrumentation...70 Data Collection..73 Data Analysis.77 Data Reporting...78 Summary 78 IV REPORT OF DATA ANALYSIS.79 Introduction 79 Sample Characteristics...79 Research Questions 81 Findings.82 Summary and Overview of Findings Summary..107 V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS..109 Summary..109 Analysis of Research Findings.110 Discussion of Research Findings Conclusions..113 Implications..114 Recommendations Dissemination..119 Final Thoughts.120 9

11 RERERENCES APPENDICES

12 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Response Rates...80 Table 2: Pre-Test Data: Drinks per Week and Peak BAL...83 Table 3: Post-Test Data: Drinks per Week and Peak BAL..84 Table 4: Pres-Test Data: Rutgers Alcohol Problems Index.86 Table 5: Post-Test Data: Rutgers Alcohol Problems Index.87 Table 6: Pre-Test Data: Protective Behavioral Strategies 89 Table 7: Post-Test Data: Protective Behavioral Strategies..90 Table 8: Reponses to Satisfaction Survey.91 Table 9: Themes and Categories Emerging from Satisfaction Survey.92 Table 10: Themes and Categories Emerging from Interviews.93 Table 11: Descriptive Statistics from CORE and PBSS Scores.102 Table 12: Correlation of CORE and PBSS Data

13 CHAPTER I INTRODCUTION One only has to look toward popular media to see the impact that alcohol use is having on college campuses around the United States in general and within the fraternity and sorority community specifically. One example of this was Joey Upshaw s death on April 2, 2000, due to a lethal combination of alcohol and GHB at his fraternity house at The Ohio State University (Moroney, 2000). In 2004, two lives were lost due to alcohol misuse a few short days apart. Sam Spady died on September 5 th due to alcohol poisoning at a fraternity house at Colorado State University (Wagner, 2004), and Gordy Bailey passed away after a night of heavy drinking to celebrate bid night with his fraternity on September 7 th (Uricchio, 2009). Gary DeVercelly died on March 30, 2007, due to alcohol poisoning at a fraternity party at Rider University, resulting in university administrators being charged with hazing (Associated Press, 2007). These newspaper headlines only provide additional anecdotal data to support more than 30 years of research that has shown that many college students drink at alarming rates, and that members of social Greek-letter organizations are at an even greater risk for negative consequences as a result of their high-risk drinking than their non-greek peers. Researchers have found that fraternity and sorority members drink more heavily and frequently and experience more negative consequences associated with their alcohol use than their non-greek peers (Cashin, Presley, & Meilman, 1998; Sher, Bartholow, & Nanda, 2001). The rate of drinking of fraternity house members has been found to be 20 drinks per week compared to 8 drinks per week for non-greek male students while 12

14 sorority women consume an average of 6 drinks per week contrasted to 3 drinks per week for other female students (Cashin et al.). According to Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, Gledhill-Hoyt, and Lee (1998), although Greek society members are only a small minority of the national college population, their influence is far greater (p. 60). For this reason, it is important for college and university administrators to truly understand the use of alcohol within the fraternity and sorority system and to explore effective ways to reduce high-risk drinking within this particular affinity group. Doing so could help to reduce the overall individual, secondhand, and institutional effects of alcohol use within the higher education community. Although a great deal of research has been conducted to explore ways to reduce high-risk drinking within the general college student population, little research in terms of reducing heavy drinking and its associated negative outcomes has been conducted within the Greek community. In fact, many Greek undergraduates and alumni claim that too little systematic research on a national scale has been done, that too much of the criticism related to alcohol use by fraternity and sorority members has been based on anecdotes (Wechsler, Kuh, & Davenport, 1996, p. 263). The absence of greater empirical data makes it difficult to implement effective risk reduction strategies (Wechsler, Kuh, & Davenport, 1996). Traditional education and prevention efforts, which have focused primarily on behavioral mandates and educational campaigns, have proven to be ineffective at changing the drinking behaviors of Greek members, and confronting current drinking rates can be seen as a personal attack on the organization (Hunnicutt, Davis, & Fletcher, 13

15 1991). Often these programs and tactics do not take into account the unique alcoholrelated risks associated with this population or the individual and chapter contexts in which drinking occurs (Larimer, Anderson, Baer, & Marlatt, 2000). Also, it is important to note that student drinking behavior is going to be most influenced by members of the peer group with whom students most closely identify (Carter & Kahnweiler, 2000; Larimer, Anderson, et al., 2000). Therefore, prevention efforts must focus on the role that the chapter plays in an individual s drinking patterns. Higher education administrators must develop an understanding of how the environment of the Greek system and its individual members differs from the general college student population to shed light on differences in alcohol consumption and responsiveness to prevention programming exhibited by these groups (Larimer, Anderson, et al., 2000, p. 54). The Task Force of the National Advisory Council on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) produced a report in 2002 which stated that one of the most effective ways to challenge students current drinking patterns is through the use of the Alcohol Skills Training Program (ASTP). ASTP attempts to change drinking behaviors by teaching students skills to moderate their alcohol use (Fromme, Marlatt, Bear, & Kivlahan, 1994). The program s impact, however, on high risk groups such as fraternity and sorority members, has been studied very few times and none of these studies have attempted to determine what aspects of the program lead to its effectiveness or how chapter culture impacts its efficacy. Although ASTP could be just the tool to reduce the number of deaths and other negative consequences associated with fraternity and sorority members drinking, more study is needed. If ASTP is shown to be effective with this 14

16 special population, it could provide important information to higher education leaders as to how to address the issue of high-risk drinking on university campuses in general and Greek organizations in particular. Background Before reviewing the literature related to fraternity and sorority members and drinking, it is important to understand the individual and institutional negative consequences that can result on college campuses related to student alcohol use. According to Perkins (2002), alcohol is routinely cited by researchers, college administrators and staff, and also by students themselves, as the most pervasively misused substance on college campuses (p. 91). University presidents often define alcohol misuse and abuse as the factor having the greatest negative impact on the campus community and quality of life of individual students (Presley, Meilman, & Leichliter, 2002). This could be accounted for due to the fact that 84.3% of students report having used alcohol within the past year and of those who drink, almost one-half report engaging in binge drinking in the previous two weeks (Southern Illinois University, 2008). Alcohol has been for many years and continues to be today the drug of choice for most college students (National Center on Addiction, 2007). Alcohol Use among College Students Individual students who choose to consume alcohol are at risk for a variety of negative consequences, especially when they choose to engage in high-risk drinking behaviors. Some of the consequences experienced include, poor academic performance (Porter & Pryor, 2007; Presley & Meilman, 1992); arrests, accidents, and deaths due to 15

17 drinking and driving (Higson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005; Presley & Meilman); negative health costs (National Center on Addiction, 2007; Perkins, 2002); and participation in unplanned and unprotected sex (Cooper, 2002; National Center on Addiction, 2007). All of these outcomes are reasons for educational leaders to be concerned about student alcohol use. Even those who choose not to consume alcohol can be affected by students alcohol-related behaviors. Those living in residence halls (Wechsler, Dowdall et al., 1998) and in neighborhoods surrounding college campuses (National Center on Addiction, 2007) are the most likely to be affected by things like noise, litter, damage to property, physical violence, and assaults. Colleges and universities are also directly affected by students alcohol use. Academic performance is hindered when students over consume, leading to lowered grade point averages, attrition, and loss of academic reputation (Martinez, Sher, & Wood, 2008; Perkins, 2002). In addition, dealing with the outcomes of student drinking places strain on financial as well as human capital resources (Engs & Hanson, 1994; National Center on Addiction, 2007). At-Risk Populations Although risky drinking behavior may be the cause or an important contributing factor in many different academic, emotional, physical, social, and legal problems experienced by undergraduates (Perkins, 2002, p. 92), there are a number of student groups that are at higher risk than most for not only engaging in dangerous drinking behaviors but also for increased negative consequences associated with their alcohol use. 16

18 These groups include athletes (Breener & Swanik, 2007; Leichliter, Meilman, Presley, & Cashin, 1998), first year students living in residence halls (Wechsler & Nelson, 2008; Zamboanga, Olthuis, Horton, McCollum, Lee, & Shaw, 2009), and members of fraternities and sororities (National Center on Addiction, 2007; Wechsler, Dowdall et al., 1998). Alcohol Use and Associated Negative Consequences among Greek Members Although this misuse and abuse of alcohol by athletic team members and first year residence hall students should certainly be of concern to university administrators, the group that seems to be the most problematic includes members of Greek-letter organizations. For many years, subjective information indicating that fraternities and sororities engaged in abusive drinking behaviors had been shared (Cashin, Presley, & Meilman, 1998), but when the study of the role that Greek membership plays in alcohol use began, the research demonstrated that members of these organizations actually do drink more heavily and more frequently than non-greek students (Wechsler, Kuh, & Davenport, 1996). In a variety of studies conducted over the past three decades, researchers have found these facts to be true (Larimer, Anderson, et al., 2000; Lo & Globetti, 1995; National Center on Addiction, 2007). Students who choose to join Greek letter societies have been shown to escalate not only the amount of their drinking but also the rate of their drinking after becoming a member, especially when compared to their non-greek peers (Lo & Globetti). These higher levels of drinking mean that fraternity and sorority members experience negative consequences as a result of their alcohol use at a higher rate than 17

19 non-greek students. Many organizations have come under increasing fire because of parties associated with injuries and even fatalities (Goodwin, 1989). Several different studies over the last thirty years have produced similar statistics related to high rates of experiences with negative consequences (DeSimone, 2009; Larimer, Irvine, Kilmer, & Marlatt, 1997; Strano, Cuomo, & Venable, 2004), and few college professionals would doubt that, as a group, members of college Greek systems (fraternities and sororities) are at increased risk for negative consequences compared to their non-greek peers (Larimer et al, 1997, p. 587). The level at which they drink places them at a higher risk for such things as missing class, poor grades, unprotected sex, violence, and even death (Caron, Mosey, & Hovey, 2004). Promising Solution The Alcohol Skills Training Program (ASTP), which has been shown to significantly reduce drinking rates and associated problems at the one-year and two-year follow up periods (Task Force, 2002a, p. 17), may prove the most effective tool in reducing high-risk drinking among fraternity and sorority members. Because ASTP provides students assistance in developing strategies to reduce their high-risk drinking behaviors by teaching students the basic principles of moderate drinking and how to cope with high-risk situations for excessive alcohol consumption (Task Force, 2002a, p.17), it meets the needs identified by Larimer, Anderson, et al. (2000) in changing drinking behaviors within the Greek system. Limitations in Existing Research Very limited research has been conducted related to effective prevention 18

20 programs within the Greek community. While there has been a tremendous amount of study which shows Greeks to be one of the most at-risk groups on campus, little work has been done to try to determine how to best address this issue. There has been some research to show that ASTP is effective in preventing high-risk drinking and its negative consequences within the college student population, but much of this research has been conducted by the individuals who developed the prevention programs. This leads to concerns over the bias that might be present within these research efforts. Also, while some of these programs could prove to be effective with fraternity and sorority members, the research has shown that this population has very different dynamics associated with their drinking than other college students. Therefore, more study is needed to determine whether or not this program could be effective with the Greek community. Statement of the Problem Studies have been conducted indicating that members of social fraternities and sororities drink at higher rates than their non-greek peers and are at greater risk for negative consequences associated with their drinking. Several different factors within the Greek culture contribute to these alarming statistics; however, few programs have been designed that address the special needs of this population when attempting to reduce their drinking rates and frequencies. As their drinking contributes to the over-all alcoholrelated problems faced by college administrators, educational leaders must find ways to reduce the high-risk drinking behaviors of fraternity and sorority members. Although there is some research indicating that particular interventions can be effective in reducing college student drinking, few of these studies focus specifically on 19

21 fraternity and sorority members. In fact, the limited research studies available that do focus on these groups indicate that many traditional approaches to alcohol education and prevention are actually ineffective with this population. Therefore, it is imperative to find different approaches to address high-risk drinking with Greek students. One program that does seem to show some promise in reducing drinking rates and frequencies and alcohol-related negative consequences within the fraternity and sorority community is the Alcohol Skills Training Program developed at the University of Washington, but more study is needed to determine its effectiveness. This program is currently being delivered in a one-time, two-hour setting to the members of one men s national fraternity. This organization provides an excellent opportunity to test the level of change that can occur in fraternity members as a result of participation in the program as well as attempt to discover what elements of the program and/or the chapter s culture may lead to this change. This research could provide important information to the higher education community as to how to address the issue of high-risk drinking on university campuses in general and fraternities in particular. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Alcohol Skills Training Program on college fraternity members drinking behaviors and to attempt to ascertain what elements of the program may lead to change. Research Questions The researcher in this study considered the following overarching question in this study: Does the Alcohol Skills Training Program result in decreased high-risk drinking behaviors and negative consequences for national fraternity members? 20

22 In addition, the following subquestions were used to answer the overarching question: Subquestion 1: To what extent does ASTP reduce high-risk drinking behaviors in fraternity members? Subquestion 2: To what extent does ASTP reduce negative consequences associated with high-risk drinking in fraternity members? Subquestion 3: What aspects of ASTP make the program successful for use with fraternity members in addressing high-risk drinking behaviors and associated negative consequences? Subquestion 4: Is there an association between a chapter culture that promotes alcohol use and the extent to which the skills taught in ASTP are implemented by participants? Significance of the Problem Retention, progression, and graduation rates of students are always a concern at the forefront of the minds of higher education leaders. This issue is even more pertinent in light of recent serious reductions in funding for higher education. More than ever, colleges and universities need tuition dollars and student fees in order to remain operational and provide quality services to their students. Students alcohol use and associated negative consequences play a major role in student academic success and whether or not they stay enrolled in school. In addition, the time and resources invested in dealing with the effects of student alcohol use are a burden to the institution. As leaders, higher education professionals must acknowledge the role that substance abuse plays in attrition rates as well as try to reduce the financial and staffing strains created as 21

23 a result of many students high-risk drinking behaviors. Results of this study should have implications for higher education leaders as student alcohol-related costs, injuries, health and wellness consequences, academic impact, and deaths are of major concern. Studies have been conducted which have determined that fraternity and sorority members drink more frequently and in higher quantities than their non-greek peers. In addition, as a result of their alcohol use, they experience more negative consequences associated with their drinking than other students. Despite this large body of research, there is limited information available to help educational leaders address this important public health concern with members of Greek letter organizations. Although the Alcohol Skills Training Program shows some promise in reducing high-risk alcohol consumption and its associated negative consequences within this population, very limited study exists which has tested its impact with this population. The results of this study may provide additional evidence of an effective prevention strategy in addressing this concern. The national men s fraternity currently using this program stands to benefit from the findings of this study as the results might be helpful in guiding program improvement. If this program is shown to be effective in reducing high-risk drinking and associated negative consequences with fraternity members, it will also be important to know what about the program is leading to its effectiveness. Finally, those individuals choosing to participate in the study may benefit directly from the educational programming provided. If ASTP is in fact making a change in highrisk drinking behaviors, those students who take part in the program will quite possibly see a reduction in the negative consequences of their drinking as their alcohol-related 22

24 behaviors change. Research Procedures Research Design The purpose of this mixed methods design was to determine the impact of Alcohol Skills Training Program on college fraternity members drinking behaviors and to establish which aspects of the program lead to change in behavior based upon the views of the individuals to participate in the program. A sequential mixed methods (QUAN-qual) approach was used to examine the stated overarching research question and subquestions. In particular, the researcher used surveys, questionnaires, and interviews to gather data for the study. Population/Sample The population for this research was composed of all current undergraduate members of the chapters of the men s national fraternity involved in this study throughout the United States. A purposeful sample of convenience was used for purposes of collecting pre-test and post-test survey data as well as questionnaire data. Three chapters from each category received the ASTP intervention (the experimental group) while the remaining three chapters did not (the control group). The interview sample was purposeful and selected from those chapters that received the ASTP intervention. Instrumentation The researcher used the Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI) (Center for Alcohol Studies), the Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ) (Baer, Kivlahan, Blume, McKnight, & Marlatt, 2001), and the Protective Behavioral Strategies Survey (PBSS) 23

25 (Marten, Pederson, LaBrie, Ferrier, & Cimini, 2007) to gather pre-test and post-test data. All of these instruments rely upon participants self-reported data. The use of these instruments and peak blood alcohol level (BAL) calculations aided the researcher in determining the efficacy of ASTP in changing fraternity members drinking behaviors and attitudes and in reducing the negative consequences associated with their drinking. However, these instruments did not aid the researcher in determining how chapter culture might impact the efficacy of the program or what elements of the program might lead to behavioral change. Therefore, additional tools were used to address these issues. The researcher adapted the CORE survey (Presley, Meilman, & Lyerla, 1994) questions related to campus culture to ask participants to evaluate chapter culture. In addition, the Satisfaction Survey currently utilized by University of Washington (J. Kilmer, personal communication, June 17, 2011) in evaluating their alcohol education programming efforts was added to the questionnaire to examine the effectiveness of the program itself. Finally, interview questions were used for follow-up and clarification purposes. Data Collection After obtaining permission from the Institutional Review Board at Georgia Southern University, selected chapters participated in the Alcohol Skills Training Program. The pre-test was administered immediately prior to the presentation of the program for those chapters participating in ASTP education. The chapters that did not receive the educational intervention were ed the pre-test via addresses provided to the researcher through collection from the national fraternity. The national 24

26 fraternity has a pool of well-trained ASTP facilitators who deliver the educational program. These facilitators were informed of how to deliver the informed consent information and how to administer the pre-test. For those chapters not receiving the intervention, the informed consent was included in an and the pre-test was contained in a SurveyMonkey TM link provided in the same . All chapter members were ed approximately four weeks after program completion and provided with a URL link that allowed them to access the post-test and the questionnaire. After compiling all quantitative date, subjects who indicated a willingness to participate in interviews were contacted via phone. Interviews were audio recorded. Data Analysis The results of all surveys and questionnaires were coded and entered into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to calculate descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistical differences among chapters within the sample related to scores on the RAPI, the DDQ, and the PBSS were measured using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). In addition, correlational analysis was performed to determine if a relationship exists between chapter culture and scores on the DDQ. As this was a mixed method study, interviews were the most appropriate method for collecting the qualitative information from participants (Merriam, 2009). After transcribing all interviews, categories were constructed, sorted, and named in order to assist the researcher in finding the themes present throughout the interviews. Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions This study was restricted by the following limitations. First, the use of a 25

27 convenience sample might not permit generalizability of the study; however, the results will provide a foundation for further research in this area. Second, survey respondents who are asked to provide data about highly sensitive issues such as alcohol use may over or under report their usage (Cashin et al., 1998). However, research has demonstrated that when asked about alcohol use, self-report measures have demonstrated reasonable levels of reliability and validity (DelBoca & Darkes, 2003, p. 9). Furthermore, the descriptions used in the surveys and questionnaires were perceptual and relied on interpretation on the part of subjects which means that some of the results could be biased (Cashin et al.). Due to the fact that questions from the CORE survey were modified from their original format to apply to the audience of fraternity members, the validity and reliability do not apply to the questions used in this study. The modifications were, however, reviewed by an expert panel prior to their use in the research. Finally, the interview questions could be viewed to lack validity and reliability as they were developed by the researcher. There are several delimitations to the study as well. The sample involves only one national men s fraternity. As this is the only fraternity currently using ASTP as an alcohol education tool with chapter members, a sample of convenience existed. Also, the national fraternity already provides trained facilitators to administer the intervention which aided in the researcher s decision to proceed with this organization. Only fraternity chapters at public institutions were included in the sample as many private colleges and universities have more restrictive policies related to alcohol use. Therefore, the policies themselves could be what impact students attitudes and behaviors 26

28 surrounding alcohol use. The determination to include only public institutions was made by the researcher in an attempt to control for this external variable. As the project involves survey data collection and interviews, the researcher assumed that subjects participating in the study were honest in the answers they gave to all questions. In addition, the researcher assumed, based on the psychometric properties and the previous usage of several of the data collection instruments in earlier studies, that the instruments used in this study measured what they purport to measure. Finally, the presence of extraneous variables could have impacted the outcome of the study. For instance, an ineffective facilitator could account for why no change occurred in chapter members drinking behaviors. Chapter member s individual backgrounds and family histories can certainly play a role in how effective an educational intervention might be with participants, and individual differences could alter group data. In addition, factors influencing chapter culture, such as the attitude of the chapter leadership toward the program, could impact the effectiveness of the program. Finally, campus events beyond the control of the researcher, including events such as an alcoholrelated student death, could have influenced the results of the study. Key Definitions Alcohol Skills Training Program (ASTP): ASTP is a prevention tool designed to educate students about alcohol and to teach skills for avoiding, resisting, and setting limits on alcohol use (Kivlahan, Marlatt, Fromme, Coppel, & Williams, 1990). 27

29 Binge Drinking: This type of behavior involves drinking at a rate which has been determined to be 5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more drinks for women in one setting (Wechsler, Dowdall, et al., 1998). Also known as Heavy Episodic Drinking. Biphasic Curve: When consuming alcohol, the body experiences a two-part effect. This is first characterized by a positive, perhaps energized feeling, followed by the introduction of the depressant effects of the alcohol (Miller, Kilmer, et al., 2001). Blood Alcohol Level (BAL): A person s blood alcohol level is the ratio of alcohol to blood in their blood stream (Miller, Kilmer, Kim, Weingardt, & Marlatt, 2001). Greek-Letter Organizations: These organizations are single-sex in nature and provide social, leadership, and service opportunities to their members (also referred to as fraternities and sororities) (Gehring & Young, 2003). Heavy Episodic Drinking: This type of behavior involves drinking at a rate which has been determined to be 5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more drinks for women in one setting (Wechsler, Moykens, Davenport, Castillo, & Hansen, 1995). Also known as Binge Drinking. High-Risk Drinking: High-risk drinking includes those situations that may involve but not be limited to: binge drinking; underage drinking; drinking and driving; drinking when depressed or under emotional stress; combining alcohol and other drugs; and use that results in negative consequences (Brenner & Swanik, 2007). 28

30 National Advisory Council on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA): This is a body which provides leadership in the national effort to reduce alcohol-related problems (National Institute of Health). Negative Consequences of High-Risk Drinking: These consequences are the results of drinking that place the drinker and others around them in harms way, including but not limited to: physical effects; property damage; assault; trouble with law enforcement or other officials; and death (Goodwin, 1989). Social Norms: The use of social norms is a prevention effort that focuses on communicating the truth about what the majority of college students do in terms of their alcohol consumption (Perkins, 2003). Standard Drink: Any beverage containing ½ ounces of ethyl alcohol (12 oz. of beer, 4 oz. of wine, 1 oz. of 100-proof liquor) is considered to be a standard drink (Miller, Kilmer, et al., 2001). Chapter Summary Alcohol misuse and abuse is cited as one of the major problems facing colleges and universities today. As institutions of higher learning become more dependent on recruiting and retaining students in order to offset reductions in state and federal funding for higher education, ensuring that students alcohol use is not interfering with their academic performance becomes an even greater concern. While it is well known that fraternity and sorority members are some of the most high-risk drinkers on college campuses, little research has been conducted to determine what means, if any, might be effective in reducing alcohol use among this special population. 29

31 The purpose of this mixed methods study was to determine the impact of ASTP on college fraternity members drinking behaviors and to establish which aspects of the program lead to change in behavior. The study used questions from existing surveys to measure changes in behaviors surrounding alcohol use and explored what elements of the program led to these changes through the development of a questionnaire. In addition, the same questionnaire attempted to determine if any elements of chapter culture impacted the effectiveness of the program. Finally, interviews were used for follow-up and clarification purposes. The research included six chapters of the national fraternity. Statistical analysis was conducted on the quantitative data using SPSS statistical software, analysis of variance (ANCOVA) was conducted for purposes of exploring multi-group comparison data, and Pearson r was utilized to determine if a relationship exists between chapter culture and implementation of program skills. Interview data was transcribed and categories were constructed, sorted, and named in order to assist the researcher in finding the themes present throughout the interviews. The results of this study will provide valuable insight for the national fraternity as well as for higher education administrators across the United States. 30

32 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW High-risk drinking behaviors and the resulting negative consequences among members of fraternities and sororities have been long studied. The research consulted for this review revealed that there is a perception among students that the Greek system will support heavy drinking. Borsari and Carey s (1999) work, while helpful in understanding the scope of the problem, is a review of the research conducted between 1980 and 1998 rather than an independent research project. Other studies that draw this conclusion, however, are critical pieces of research (Caron et al., 2004; O Connor, Cooper, & Thiele 1996). In addition, Wechsler, Kuh, and Davenport (1996) reported that, fraternity and sorority house environments appear to tolerate hazardous use of alcohol and other irresponsible behaviors (p. 272) as a result of sampling 194 colleges and universities across the United States using a 20-page questionnaire. All of this information shows the need for university administrators to find appropriate, effective, and creative ways to address the issue of high-risk drinking within the fraternity and sorority community. In conducting the search of the literature available on this topic, educational databases such as ERIC, Academic Search Complete, and EBSCOHost were utilized. A variety of search terms were tested, and some of the most productive terms used during the research included college student alcohol use, secondary consequences of alcohol use, academic consequences of alcohol use, health consequences of alcohol use, high-risk drinking groups, college athletes and drinking, first year residence hall students and drinking, fraternities/sororities and drinking, alcohol and 31

33 fraternity/sorority membership, Greek letter societies and alcohol, alcohol education programs, alcohol prevention programs, and Alcohol Skills Training Program. As this literature review is an attempt to provide an accurate synopsis of the research work in this area, articles from 1986 through 2011 were included to show the depth of information on the topic. Many of the authors of these articles, such as Henry Wechsler, John Baer, Alan Marlatt, George Kuh, Cheryl Presley, and Mary Larimer, are also considered to be experts in their fields, so it was important to include their point of view even when contained in older articles. Finally, the research on this topic seems to be somewhat cyclical in nature. The problem was originally defined quite a few years ago, and while there have been some updates to those original studies, the majority of the work explaining the problem of high-risk drinking is contained in older articles. In addition, each time a new intervention is proposed to address the issue, college student alcohol use will again resurface as a major research area. For these reasons, works published more than five years ago were included to ensure that the topic was thoroughly researched before undertaking this study. Several landmark documents were reviewed as well. These included Wasting the Best and the Brightest: Substance Abuse at America s Colleges and Universities (National Center on Addiction, 2007), A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges (Task Force, 2002a), Reducing Alcohol Problems on Campus: A Guide to Planning and Evaluation (Task Force, 2002b), Binge Drinking on America s College Campuses: Findings from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (Wechsler, 2000), and What Colleges Need to Know Now: An Update on College 32

34 Drinking Research (Task Force, 2007). In addition to these documents being considered authoritative on the subject of college drinking within the prevention and higher education communities, they were also cited in many of the other articles reviewed. This review will begin by exposing the impact that college student drinking has not only on the individual students engaging in alcohol use but also on other students suffering from secondhand consequences as well as the entire college or university campus. It will then explore drinking frequency and quantity within the Greek community compared to that of the general college student population and provide several explanations as to why these higher levels may be present among fraternity and sorority members. It will also include information on the types and severity of negative consequences associated with high-risk drinking behaviors among fraternity and sorority members and contrast these to other undergraduates. Information indicating the special role that chapter culture plays in the drinking patterns of Greek members is provided, and prevention efforts that have proven effective in reducing drinking rates and amounts and negative outcomes from alcohol use will be reviewed in comparison to what efforts show promise within the Greek student population. Finally, the review will discuss limitations to the articles included and will conclude by providing direction for future research in this area of study. College Students and Alcohol Use The health, safety, and academic well-being of students are always of concern to higher education leaders. As a result, they must be concerned with college student s drinking behaviors, because when students develop patterns of heavy drinking, they place 33

35 themselves at risk for experiencing adverse consequences (Borsari, Murphy, & Barnett, 2007). Recently, The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) released a report that included information from a telephone survey of current college students as well as analyses from six existing data sets and over 800 articles written about substance abuse on college campuses. This research revealed some alarming statistics. For instance, the researchers at Columbia found that between 1993 and 2001, the number of students involved in alcohol-related injuries rose 38%, the amount of students who frequently binge drink rose 16%, the number of students reporting getting drunk 3 or more times in the past month went up 26%, and the percentage of students who drink to get drunk grew 21% (National Center on Addiction, 2007). The findings included in this important report are supported in other research related to alcohol use and college students. Additional studies have shown that twothirds of students report drinking in the past month (Johnston, O Malley, & Bachman, 2004), that the average college student consumes about 5 drinks per week, and as many as 21% of those students report drinking 3 times per week or more (Southern Illinois University, 2008). Wechsler s (2000) work with the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study demonstrated that 72% of college students are frequent drinkers and 42% of underage students would be classified as binge drinkers. More recent research supports Wechsler s work and shows that the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking has remained fairly constant over the last three decades (O Malley & Johnston, 2002; Johnston, O Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2004). The annual account from the Core Institute in 2008 reported that 46% of students had engaged in binge drinking 34

36 and 63% drink 4 to 5 drinks almost every day (Southern Illinois University, 2008). These startling statistics, coupled with the fact that alcohol use is correlated with academic failure, injuries and assaults, property damage, and legal consequences, show the reasons why university administrators should be concerned with the frequency and quantity of alcohol being consumed by college students. Individual Consequences from Alcohol Use Students who choose to consume alcohol, especially those that engage in highrisk drinking, are at risk for a variety of negative consequences that may result from their use. They may experience academic difficulties; be involved in accidents or suffer legal costs associated with driving under the influence; endure a range of health consequences, from minor annoyances such as headaches or nausea to more serious issues such as an impaired immune system or death; or engage in unplanned or unprotected sex. Academic consequences. As students are at college first and foremost to be successful in the classroom, the impact that their rate, frequency, and quantity of drinking have on their academic performance is of tremendous importance to university faculty and administrators. We know from research that students who report drinking heavily tend to have lower GPAs than their non-drinking or more moderate drinking peers (Kremer & Levy, 2003). Porter and Pryor s (2007) work showed that the probability of maintaining an A grade point average decreases as a student s engagement in heavy drinking increases. This fact was supported by research reports that indicate that students who consume seven or more drinks per week have an average GPA of D or F (Presley & Meilman, 1992). This consequence is due primarily to the fact that students who engage 35

37 in high-risk drinking typically spend less time studying (Williams, Powell, & Wechsler, 2003). Powell, Williams, and Wechsler (2004), found that with each additional drink a student consumes, the likelihood that they will miss class increases by 9% and their probability of getting behind in academic work increases by 5%. This lowered academic performance could be accounted for due to the fact that of students who report drinking, 31% admit to having missed a class as a result of their alcohol use and 23% state that they have performed poorly on a test due to their consumption (Presley, Meilman, & Leichliter, 2002). Just the time required to recover from a night of drinking can impact a student s ability to study and perform well in the classroom (Porter & Pryor, 2007). In addition, alcohol use has been linked to difficulty with memory, problem solving, and abstract thinking (National Center on Addiction, 2007). According to Presley, Meilman, and Leichliter (2008), 28% of students report having had memory loss in the last year. The results reported in the CASA study indicate that students who engage in binge drinking are more likely to be suspended from school, while almost 51% have gotten behind in their schoolwork and 68% report missing class (National Center on Addiction, 2007). Drinking and driving. Another major concern related to college student alcohol use is the high prevalence of drinking and driving that takes place as this behavior can injure not only the drinker but also innocent drivers and pedestrians as well. Approximately 22% of college students reported having driven while under the influence (Southern Illinois University, 2008), and each year more than 1,400 students die from alcohol-related injuries which are primarily due to car crashes (Higson, Heeren, Winter, 36