Bol. Poboljšanje upravljanja simptomima u zdravstvenoj njezi onkoloških bolesnika primjenom prakse utemeljene na dokazima

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1 PRIMJENA DOKAZA U PRAKSI E O N S P R I L A G O D I O Z A E U R O P S K E M E D I C I N S K E S E S T R E Bol Poboljšanje upravljanja simptomima u zdravstvenoj njezi onkoloških bolesnika primjenom prakse utemeljene na dokazima

2 PRIMJENA DOKAZA U PRAKSI Dobrodošli na Euro PEP-ove Europsko društvo onkoloških medicinskih sestara ponosno predstavlja prve PEP smjernice (PEP = primjena dokaza u praksi ) kojima bi se trebala poboljšati zdravstvena njega onkoloških bolesnika u Europi. Poboljšanje zdravstvene njege pacijenata je proces koji traje. Postoji raskorak između dostupnih dokaza i onoga što se primjenjuje u praksi. Taj raskorak dovodi do lošije ili pogrešne zdravstvene njege pacijenata oboljelih od raka. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su da medicinske sestre dokaze nedovoljno koriste u praksi. Rezultati takoďer ukazuju i na to da postoji više razloga iz kojih medicinske sestre ne koriste najnovije dokaze. Kao prvo, istraživanja su teško razumljiva i količinski obimna. Kao drugo, medicinske sestre smatraju da nemaju dovoljno stručnog znanja za interpretiranje kvalitete dokaza. Kada bismo i jedan mali dio znanja o upravljanju simptomima mogli pretočiti u praksu, već bi i to poboljšalo stanje pacijenata. Ove Euro PEP smjernice razvile su se u suradnji s Društvom onkoloških medicinskih sestara (ONS), a financirale su ih Europska komisija i EONS u sklopu Europske akcije protiv raka (odnosno Europskog partnerstva za akciju protiv raka). Mnogi sudionici iz Europe i SAD dali su svoj doprinos u razvoju i stručnoj provjeri ovih dokumenata. EONS im zahvaljuje na trudu i upornosti. Ovi dokumenti sadrže kratak sažetak dokaza, sintezu procjene pacijenata, sažetak intervencija temeljenih na dokazima, stručna mišljenja koja će vas usmjeravati u vašem interpretiranju europskih normi, reference i izvore materijala. Smjernice možete prilagoditi svojim potrebama, odnosno radnim uvjetima, no PEP-ovi pružaju dodatnu sigurnost činjenicom da su teme iznimno strogo provjerene godine od strane vodećih stručnjaka na tom polju. U ime tima koji je pregledavao materijale, uvjereni smo da će ove informacije, zajedno s vašim naporima i predanošću, poboljšati vaš rad s pacijentima, tj. pomoći vam u ostvarivanju boljih, usredotočenijih rezultata temeljenih na znanstvenim dokazima. Želimo vam puno uspjeha! Sara Faithfull, Anita Marguiles, voditeljica, EPAAC voditeljica, PEP

3 SADRŽAJ Pojašnjenje ikonica na pocetku poglavlja stranica 5 Kako koristiti ovaj prirucnik stranica 6 Brzi pregled stranica 8 Mišljenje strucnjaka stranica 10 Alati za procjenu stranica 12 Definicije stranica 14 Reference stranica 16 Tablice s dokazima (Pogledaj zasebni odjelja) Putting Evidence into Practice (PEP) resources (evidence syntheses and weight of evidence categorization) are the work of the Oncology Nursing Society (ONS). Because translations from English may not always be accurate or precise, ONS disclaims any responsibility for inaccuracies in words or meaning that may occur as a result of the translation. European Oncology Nursing Society (2012). Authorized translation and adaptation of the English edition and open-access web materials by the Oncology Nursing Society, USA. This translation and adaptation is published and distributed by permission of the Oncology Nursing Society, the owner of all rights to publish and distribute the same. This publication arises from the European Partnership for Action Against Cancer Joint Action, which has received funding from the European Union, in the framework of the Health Programme.

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5 Introductions to: Uvod u poglavlja Brzi pregled Brzi pregled pruža vrlo kratki sažetak resursa Društva onkoloških medicinskih sestara za primjenu dokaza u praksi (ONS PEP). Cjeloviti dokumenti nalaze se u Praktikumu. Informacije o ONS PEP i opisi kategorija dokaza nalaze se na stranicama Mišljenje stručnjaka Mišljenje stručnjaka: niskorizične intervencije su one koje su: (1) u skladu sa dobrom (uspješnom) kliničkom praksom, (2) koje predloži stručnjak u nekoj stručnoj publikaciji (časopis ili poglavlje u knjizi) i (3) za koje postoje ograničeni dokazi. Stručnjak je pojedinac čiji je rad na nekom polju objavljen u nekoj stručnoj publikaciji Alati za procjenu Općenito gledano, niti jedan alat ne mjeri sve elemente simptoma. Odabir alata ovisi o cilju procjene te o razini utjecaja na kliničara i pacijenta. Većina simptoma doživljava se osobno; prema tome, osobna (vlastita) procjena je najpouzdanija metoda procjene. Definicije Unutar dokumenata mnogi izrazi zahtijevaju dodatna pojašnjenja koja bi, njihovim razumijevanjem pridonijela uspješnijim rezultatima predmetnih intervencija. Slijedeće definicije prilagođene su sadržaju pojedinih PEP dokumenata. 5

6 Bol Kako koristiti ove smjernice Pregledajte Euro - PEP izvore i razmislite o primjenjivosti u vašoj praksi i za vaše pacijente. Obavite iscrpnu procjenu pacijentovog poznavanja relevantnih kliničkih problema. Primjeri alata za mjerenje navedeni su u sažetcima mjerenja koja su utemeljena na dokazima. Sažetci se nalaze na stranicama svake PEP teme. Identificirajte intervencije s najvišom kategorijom dokaza i integrirajte ih u plan zdravstvene njege. Uzmite u obzir pacijentove želje, način života te troškove i provedivost intervencija. Procijenite i dokumentirajte reakcije pacijenta na intervencije. Ukoliko se čini potrebnim, razmislite o implementaciji ostalih intervencija koje sadrže visoke razine dokaza. Objasnite pacijentima da je njihova njega temeljena na najboljim dostupnim dokazima. Tablica težine dokaza (tzv. semafor) pruža informacije o tome kako su dokazi vrednovani. Prerađeno iz za potrebe Euro PEP resursa Zeleno = KRENI! Dokazi podržavaju mogućnost primjene ovih intervencija u praksi. Žuto = OPREZ! Nedovoljno informacija da bi mogli potvrditi jesu li ove intervencije učinkovite ili ne Crveno = STOP! Dokazi ukazuju na to da su ove intervencije neučinkovite ili potencijalno opasne. 6

7 How to use this guide Preporuča se u praksi Intervencije čija je učinkovitost dokazana strogim studijama, meta-analizom ili sistematskim istraživanjem, a kod kojih je mogućnost neželjenih učinaka osjetno manja od očekivanih prednosti. Vjerojatnost učinkovitosti je velika Intervencije čija je učinkovitost dokazana jednim strogim testiranjem u kontroliranim uvjetima, dosljednim dokazima iz dobro planiranih, kontroliranih testiranja malih uzoraka, ili smjernicama dobivenim iz dokaza i podržanih stručnim mišljenjem. Vaganje prednosti i neželjenih učinaka Intervencije u kojima bi kliničari i pacijenti trebali sagledati moguće pozitivne i negativne učinke, u skladu s predmetnim okolnostima i prioritetima. Učinkovitost nije dokazana Intervencije za koje trenutno postoji nedovoljno informacija, ili postoje proturječne ili nedovoljno kvalitetne informacije, bez jasnih pokazatelja negativnih učinaka. Mala vjerojatnost učinkovitosti Intervencije čiji je nedostatak učinkovitosti dokazan negativnim rezultatima jednog strogog testiranja u kontroliranim uvjetima, dosljednim negativnim dokazima iz dobro planiranih, kontroliranih testiranja malih uzoraka, ili smjernicama dobivenim iz dokaza i podržanih stručnim mišljenjem. Ne preporuča se u praksi Intervencije čiji je nedostatak učinkovitosti, ili prisutnost negativnih učinaka, prikazan čvrstim dokazima iz strogo kontroliranih studija, meta-analiza, sistematskih ispitivanja, ili intervencije u kojima su troškovi, teškoće ili negativni učinci nadmašili očekivane prednosti. 7

8 Bol Bol Brzi pregled Definicija: Etiologija boli klasificira se kao nociceptivna, neuropatska ili oboje. Bol uzrokovana rakom rijetko se javlja sama, bez drugih simptoma. Pojedinci koji trpe bol uzrokovanu rakom mogu također imati problema sa slabošću, spavanjem, depresijom i gubitkom apetita (Gaston-Johannson i dr., 1999.; Miaskowski i Lee, 1999.; Fitzgibbon i Loeser, 2010.). Bol, umor i depresija identificirani su kao skupina simptoma karakterističnih za oboljele od raka.. Za klasificiranje u skupinu, simptomi moraju biti povezani jedni s drugima i javljati se istovremeno. Skupina simptoma može biti povezana kroz zajednički patofiziološki mehanizam, kao što je sistemska upala (Fallon i dr., 2010.). Bol uzrokovana rakom vrlo je subjektivna i jedinstvena za svakog pojedinca oboljelog od raka. To je višedimenzionalna pojava koja se sastoji od šest dimenzija: fiziološke, osjetilne, afektivne, kognitivne, bihejvioralne i društvenokulturalne (McGuire, 1995.). Te su dimenzije korisne kao okvir za procjenu, ublažavanje i istraživanje boli uzrokovane rakom. Višemodalni pristup ublažavanju boli ključan je za postizanje optimalnih rezultata za pacijente. Pojavnost: Pojavnost boli uzrokovane rakom procjenjuje se na 44% 73% kod pacijenata koji se liječe zbog raka te 58% 69% kod pacijenata u kasnijim fazama bolesti (van den Beuken-van Everdingen i dr., 2007.). Pacijenti oboljeli od svih vrsta raka trpe bol. Pacijenti oboljeli od raka u predjelu glave i vrata najčešće trpe bolove. Probojna bol se često javlja kod pacijenata s rakom, 19% 95% (Mercadante i dr., 2002; Zeppetella i Ribeiro, 2003.). Razlike u pojavnosti javljaju se zbog različitih definicija probojne boli koju koriste istraživači boli uzrokovane rakom. 8

9 Preporuča se u praksi AKUTNA BOL Postoperativni epiduralni anestetici UPORNA I NEPOPUSTLJIVA BOL Intraspinalna, epiduralna i intratekalna primjena analgetika PROBOJNA BOL Opiodi s trenutačnim djelovanjem u dozama proporcionalnim onim bazalnim Oralni i transmukozni opiodi Fentanil sprej za nos (nije registriran u Švicarskoj) KRONICNA BOL Acetaminofen (u Njemačkoj se zove Paracetamol) Ne-steroidni protuupalni lijekovi (NSAID). Opiodi Formulacije opioda s redovitiom i duljom primjenom (tj. djelovanjem) Transdermalni opiodi Metadon Tramadol Oksikodon/Nalokson Injekcije u celijački pleksus Agensi koji djeluju na kosti Posebne neuropatske intervencije Infuzija anestetika Kombinacija analgetika: Gabapentin Anti konvulzivi Psihoobrazovne intervencije 9

10 Bol Vjerojatnost učinkovitosti je velika AKUTNA BOL Tramadol s kontinuiranim doziranjem Infuzija lokalnog anestetika Perioperativni Gabapentin kao dodatni analgetik Hipnoza KRONICNA BOL Ranije davanje opioda Kanabis putem oralnog spreja (Nije dostupno u mnogim državama EU) Glazba i terapija glazbom Usporedba prednosti i neželjenih učinaka Trenutno nema preporuka Učinkovitost nije dokazana AKUTNA BOL Flaster s lidokainom za bol na mjestu (kirurškog) reza Perioperativni režim lijekova Paracetamol, Deksametason, Dekstrometorfan, Celecoksib i Gabapentin Deksametason Morfij, Acetaminofen, Ketoprofen i Naproksen Pregabalin Refleksologija stopala Akupunktura UPORNA I NEPOPUSTLJIVA BOL Intravenozni lidokain Mijenjanje opioda DMSO (nije dostupno i ne koristi se u svim državama Europe) Ketamin (nije dostupan i ne koristi se u svim državama Europe) 10

11 PROBOJNA BOL Sufentanil za nos (nije dostupan u mnogim državama Europe) KRONICNA BOL Rutinska uporaba Acetaminofena (Paracetamola) Antidepresivi: Institucionalne inicijative???? Električna stimulacija živaca kože (TENS) Masaža Progresivno opuštanje mišića (PMR) i imaginacija Terapijski zahvati Vježbanje Herbalne (biljne) formule Akupunktura Emotivno odterećenje Mala vjerojatnost rasterećenje KRONICNA BOL Kalcitonin Ne preporuča se u praksi Nema stavki 11

12 Bol MIŠLJENJE STRUCNJAKA Niskorizične intervencije su one koje su: l usklađene s dobrom (uspješnom) kliničkom praksom, l koje preporuči stručnjak u nekoj stručnoj u publikaciji (časopis ili poglavlje u knjizi) i l za koje postoje ograničeni dokazi. Stručnjak je pojedinac čiji je rad na nekom polju objavljen u nekoj stručnoj publikaciji. Sljedeći agensi su prethodno identificirani kao agensi koje se ne bi trebalo koristiti za ublažavanje boli uzrokovane rakom, na temelju mišljenja stručnjaka (Aiello-Laws i Ameringer, 2009.; (Miaskowski i dr., 2005.). Meperidin (Petidin) Propoksifen (nije dostupan u Europi) Unos lijekova intramuskularno Fenotiazini Karbamazepin 12

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14 Bol Alati za procjenu Tablica 1: Klinički alati za mjerenje/procjenu boli Naziv alata Broj stavki Podrucja Klinicka korisnost Gdje je dostupan Kratka 9 Osjećaj boli, Višedimenzionalan inventura boli mjesto, intenzitet, Jednostavan za mdanderson. (Brief Pain lijekovi, smanjenje pacijente org/education- Inventory, boli, ometanje and-research/ kratki oblik) svakodnevnih radnji departmentsprograms-and-labs/ departments Mcgillov 18 Indeks jačine boli, Višedimenzionalan upitnik o boli osjetilno, Gotov za 2 5 minuta trust.org/services/ (McGill Pain djelovanje, questionnaire Questionnaire, trenutna bol, licensing/catalogue kratki oblik) intenzitet, questionnaires/137- mjesto mpq-sf Numerička 1 Intenzitet Rezultat manji za ljestvica/skala Također se može dvije točke ili 33% painconsortium.nih. (Numeric koristiti za (pr) klinički je bitan. gov/pain_scales/ Rating Scale) ocjenu suzbijanja boli, Referenca Farrarr i NumericRatingScale. učestalosti, trajanja, dr. 4 pdf osjećaja nelagode, distresnih simptoma Vizualna 1 Intenzitet (također se Može biti nešto analogna može koristiti za (pr) teži za razumjeti i vault_public/ skala/ljestvica ocjenu suzbijanja boli, ispuniti od ostalih filesystem/?id=1478 (VAS) učestalosti, trajanja, sličnih upitnika osjećaja nelagode, s vrednovanjem distresnih simptoma) pojedinačnih stavki. (Mišljenje stručnjaka) 14

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20 Bol Bol - popis definicija Akutna bol Bol koja se javlja odjednom i obično slabi kroz kratko razdoblje (dane, sate, minute). Javlja se uslijed tjelesne povrede i obično nestaje kada povreda zacijeli. Često se, ali ne i uvijek, povezuje s objektivnim fizičkim znakovima autonomnog živčanog sustava, npr. tahikardijom, hipertenzijom, dijaforezom, midrijazom i bljedilom. (American Pain Society - Američko društvo za istraživanje boli (APS): neki od najčešćih primjera akutne boli povezane s tretmanom su bol nakon operacije i oralni mukozitis (Miaskowski i dr., 2005.). Dodatni analgetik Lijek koji nije primarni analgetik, već lijek za kojeg je istraživanje pokazalo da ima neovisna ili dodatna analgetska svojstva (npr. antidepresiv, antikonvulziv). (Američko društvo za istraživanje boli, 2005.) Proboj boli Prijelazno povećanje intenziteta boli, obično brzo i jako u odnosu na pozadinsku bol i obično u trajanju od prosječno 30 minuta (Zepetella i Ribeiro, 2006.) Prijelazno pojačanje boli događa se spontano ili u odnosu na određeni očekivani ili neočekivani uzrok, odnosno okidač, bez obzira na relativno stabilnu i kontroliranu pozadinsku bol (Davies i dr. 2009) Bol uslijed tumora Može biti akutna, kronična, povremena i često ima etiologiju koja se može definirati, a obično je povezana s ponovnom pojavom tumora ili nekim tretmanom. Znakovi nadraženog simpatičkog živčanog sustava rijetko prate kroničnu bol uslijed tumora.(aps, 2005) Kronicna bol Bol koja traje dulje od tri mjeseca (Mersky i Bogduk, 1994.). Vjeruje se da je najčešći uzrok kronične boli metastaziranje raka na kosti (Miaskowski, 2010.). Epiduralna membrana Nalazi se u kanalu kralježnice, na ili izvan dura tkiva (jaka membrana oko kralježnice) (APS) Ekvianalgetik Ujednačeni analgetski učinak; 10 mg morfijevog sulfata parenteralno, obično se koristi za opiodne analgetske usporedbe.(aps, 2005.) Nepopustljiva ili uporna bol Događa se kada se bol ne može adekvatno kontrolirati, bez obzira na agresivne mjere (Fitzgibbon i Loeser, 2010.). Intratekalno podrucje Područje između arahnoidalne membrane i pia tvari i sadrži kralježničnu moždinu. Subarahnoidalni prostor najčešće se spominje kao mjesto na kojem se rade lumbalne punkcije.(aps, 2005.) Neuroaksijalni analgetici Epiduralni i kralježnični analgetici (Taber s, 2001.) Neuropatska bol Bol uslijed povrede perifernog ili središnjeg živčanog sustava (Challapalli, Tremont-Lukats, McNicol, Lau i Carr, 2005.) Bol karakteriziraju disestezija, hiperestezija, oštra ili razdiruća bol, a javlja se uslijed ozljede živaca ili pritiska na njih (Ross, Goller, Hardy, Riley, Broadley, A hern i 20

21 Williams, 2005.) Posljedica je ozljede perifernog ili središnjeg živčanog sustava (Challapallie i dr., 2005.). Reaktivna bol Bol čiji je uzrok ozljeda tkiva. Ta ozljeda može biti rez, kontuzija, prijelom kosti, nagnječenje, opeklina i sve ostalo što ozlijedi tkivo. Ovaj tip boli obično je ustrajan, oštar, ili pulsirajući. Većina boli koje osjetimo reaktivne su. Receptori boli u tkivu (nociceptori) nalaze se uglavnom u u koži ili unutarnjim organima. (Pfizer, 2007., Fitzgibbon i Loeser, 2010.). Neuropatska bol Bol koja je posljedica ozljede perifernog ili središnjeg živčanog sustava (Challapallie i dr., 2005.). NSAID-ovi Ne-steroidni protuupalni lijekovi. Lijek poput Aspirina koji smanjuje upalu (a time i bol) u ozlijeđenom tkivu. COX-2 selektivni NSAID NSAID koji inhibira izooblik ciklooksigenaze COX-2, ali ne i oblik COX-1. Neselektivni NSAID NSAID koji inhibira izooblike ciklooksigenaze COX-1 i COX-2.(APS, 2005.) Opioid Lijek sličan morfiju koji služi za smanjenje boli. Izraz opiod preferira se nad izrazom narkotik; odnosi se na prirodne, polu-umjetne i umjetne lijekove koji smanjuju bol vežući se za opiodne receptore u živčanom sustavu. Izraz opiod također se preferira u odnosu na opijat jer sadrži sve agoniste i antagoniste uz aktivnost nalik onoj morfija, kao i prirodnih i umjetnih opiodnih peptida (APS, 2005.) Opioidni agonist Svaka mješavina nalik na morfij koja proizvodi tjelesne učinke poput otklanjanja/smanjenja boli, smirenja, konstipacije i respiratorne depresije. (APS, 2005) Opioidni agonist-antagonist Lijek koji se ponaša kao agonist kod jedne vrste opioidnih receptora, a kao antagonist kod druge vrste receptora. (APS) Bol Bol je neugodno osjetilno i emotivno iskustvo povezano sa stvarnim ili potencijalnim ozljeđivanjem tkiva, ili se opisuje u odnosu na navedeno ozljeđivanje.(merskey i Bogduk, 1994.) Palijativna skrb Smanjuje bol i druge distresne simptome bez liječenja uzročne bolesti (Svjetska zdravstvena organizacija (WHO), 2012.). Cilj palijativne skrbi je poboljšati kvalitetu života pacijenata i obitelji koje žive s neizlječivom bolešću. Koristi se timski pristup i pruža se pomoć od trenutka dijagnoze pa do kraja života. Adekvatna procjena i tretiranje boli fundamentalan je dio učinkovite palijativne skrbi. 21

22 Bol Reference Ahmedzai, S.H., Laude, E., Robertson, A., Troy, G., & Vora, V. (2004). A double blind, randomized, controlled phase II trial of heliox28 gas mixture in lung cancer patients with dyspnoea on exertion. British Journal of Cancer, 90(2), Allard, P., Lamontagne, C., Bernard, P., & Tremblay, C. (1999). How effective are supplementary doses of opioids for dyspnea in terminally ill cancer patients? A randomized continuous sequential clinical trial. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 17(4), Bausewein, C., Booth, S., Gysels, M., & Higginson, I. (2008). Nonpharmacological interventions for breathlessness in advanced stages of malignant and non-malignant diseases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online), (2)(2), CD doi: / CD pub2. Ben-Aharon, I., Gafter-Gvili, A., Paul, M., Leibovici, L., & Stemmer, S. M. (2008). Interventions for alleviating cancerrelated dyspnea: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology : Official Journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology, 26(14), doi: /jco Benitez-Rosario, M.A., Martin, A.S., & Feria, M. (2005). Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate in the management of dyspnea crises in cancer patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 30(5), Booth, S., Kelly, M.J., Cox, N.P., Adams, L., & Guz, A. (1996). Does oxygen help dyspnea in patients with cancer? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 153(5), Booth, S., Moosavi, S. H., & Higginson, I. J. (2008). The etiology and management of intractable breathlessness in patients with advanced cancer: a systematic review of pharmacological therapy. Nature Clinical Practice.Oncology, 5(2), doi: /ncponc1034. Bredin, M., Corner, J., Krishnasamy, M., Plant, H., Bailey, C., & A Hern, R. (1999). Multicentre randomised controlled trial of nursing intervention for breathlessness in patients with lung cancer. BMJ, 318(7188), Boyd, K.J., & Kelly, M. (1997). Oral morphine as symptomatic treatment of dyspnoea in patients with advanced cancer. Palliative Medicine, 11(4), Bruera, E., de Stoutz, N., Velasco-Leiva, A., Schoeller, T., & Hanson, J. (1993). Effects of oxygen on dyspnoea in hypoxaemic terminal-cancer patients. Lancet, 342(8862), supplemental oxygen versus air in cancer patients with dyspnea. Palliative Medicine, 17(8), Bruera, E., Sala, R., Spruyt, O., Palmer, J.L., Zhang, T., & Willey, J. (2005). Nebulized versus subcutaneous morphine for patients with cancer dyspnea: A preliminary study. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 29(6), Bruera, E., Macmillan, K., Pither, J., & MacDonald, R.N. (1990). Effects of morphine on the dyspnea of terminal cancer patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 5(6), Charles, M.A., Reymond, L., & Israel, F. (2008). Relief of incident dyspnea in palliative cancer patients: A pilot, randomized, controlled trial comparing nebulized hydromorphone, systemic hydromorphone, and nebulized saline. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 36(1), Charles, M. A., Reymond, L., & Israel, F. (2008). Relief of incident dyspnea in palliative cancer patients: a pilot, randomized, controlled trial comparing nebulized hydromorphone, systemic hydromorphone, and nebulized saline. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 36(1), doi: /j. jpainsymman Clemens, K.E., & Klaschik, E. (2007). Symptomatic therapy of dyspnea with strong opioids and its effect on ventilation in palliative care patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 33(4), Clemens, K. E., & Klaschik, E. (2008). Effect of hydromorphone on ventilation in palliative care patients with dyspnea. Supportive Care in Cancer : Official Journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer, 16(1), doi: /s Clemens, K. E., Quednau, I., & Klaschik, E. (2009). Use of oxygen and opioids in the palliation of dyspnoea in hypoxic and nonhypoxic palliative care patients: a prospective study. Supportive Care in Cancer : Official Journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer, 17(4), doi: /s Connors, S., Graham, S., & Peel, T. (2007). An evaluation of a physiotherapy led non-pharmacological breathlessness programme for patients with intrathoracic malignancy. Palliative Medicine, 21(4), Corner, J., Plant, H., A Hern, R., & Bailey, C. (1996). Nonpharmacological intervention for breathlessness in lung cancer. Palliative Medicine, 10(4), Bruera, E., Sweeney, C., Willey, J., Palmer, J.L., Strasser, F., Morice, R.C., et al. (2003). Randomized controlled trial of 22

23 Coyne, P.J., Viswanathan, R., & Smith, T.J. (2002). Nebulized fentanyl citrate improves patients perception of breathing, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation in dyspnea. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 23(2), Cranston, J. M., Crockett, A., & Currow, D. (2008). Oxygen therapy for dyspnoea in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online), (3)(3), CD doi: / cd pub2. Currow, D. C., Agar, M., Smith, J., & Abernethy, A. P. (2009). Does palliative home oxygen improve dyspnoea? A consecutive cohort study. Palliative Medicine, 23(4), doi: / Filshie, J., Penn, K., Ashley, S., & Davis, C.L. (1996). Acupuncture for the relief of cancer-related breathlessness. Palliative Medicine, 10(2), Galbraith, S., Fagan, P., Perkins, P., Lynch, A., & Booth, S. (2010). Does the use of a handheld fan improve chronic dyspnea? A randomized, controlled, crossover trial. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 39(5), doi: /j. jpainsymman Jennings, A.L., Davies, A.N., Higgins, J.P., Gibbs, J.S., & Broadley, K.E. (2002). A systematic review of the use of opioids in the management of dyspnoea. Thorax, 57(11), Kohara, H., Ueoka, H., Maeda, T., Takeyama, H., Saito, R., Shima, Y., et al. (2003). Effect of nebulized furosemide in terminally ill cancer patients with dyspnea. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 26(4), Mazzocato, C., Buclin, T., & Rapin, C.H. (1999). The effects of morphine on dyspnea and ventilatory function in elderly patients with advanced cancer: A randomized double-blind controlled trial. Annals of Oncology, 10(12), Navigante, A.H., Cerchietti, L.C., Castro, M.A., Lutteral, M.A., & Cabalar, M.E. (2006). Midazolam as adjunct therapy to morphine in the alleviation of severe dyspnea perception in patients with advanced cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 31(1), Navigante, A. H., Castro, M. A., & Cerchietti, L. C. (2010). Morphine versus midazolam as upfront therapy to control dyspnea perception in cancer patients while its underlying cause is sought or treated. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 39(5), doi: /j.jpainsymman Qaseem, A., Snow, V., Shekelle, P., Casey, D. E.,Jr, Cross, J. T.,Jr, Owens, D. K., Shekelle, P. (2008). Evidence-based interventions to improve the palliative care of pain, dyspnea, and depression at the end of life: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine, 148(2), Quigley, C., Joel, S., Patel, N., Baksh, A., & Slevin, M. (2002). A phase I/II study of nebulized morphine-6-glucuronide in patients with cancer-related breathlessness. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 23(1), 7 9. Rietjens, J. A., van Zuylen, L., van Veluw, H., van der Wijk, L., van der Heide, A., & van der Rijt, C. C. (2008). Palliative sedation in a specialized unit for acute palliative care in a cancer hospital: comparing patients dying with and without palliative sedation. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 36(3), doi: /j.jpainsymman Shimoyama, N., & Shimoyama, M. (2002). Nebulized furosemide as a novel treatment for dyspnea in terminal cancer patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 23(1), Simon, S. T., & Bausewein, C. (2009). Management of refractory breathlessness in patients with advanced cancer. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift (1946), 159(23-24), doi: /s y. Simon, S. T., Higginson, I. J., Booth, S., Harding, R., & Bausewein, C. (2010). Benzodiazepines for the relief of breathlessness in advanced malignant and non-malignant diseases in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online), (1)(1), CD doi: / CD pub2. Tanaka, K., Shima, Y., Kakinuma, R., Kubota, K., Ohe, Y., Hojo, F., et al. (1999). Effect of nebulized morphine in cancer patients with dyspnea: A pilot study. Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology, 29(12), Uronis, H. E., & Abernethy, A. P. (2008). Oxygen for relief of dyspnea: what is the evidence? Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care, 2(2), doi: / SPC.0b013e3282ff0f5d. Uronis, H. E., Currow, D. C., McCrory, D. C., Samsa, G. P., & Abernethy, A. P. (2008). Oxygen for relief of dyspnoea in mildly- or non-hypoxaemic patients with cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Cancer, 98(2), doi: /sj.bjc Vickers, A.J., Feinstein, M.B., Deng, G.E., & Cassileth, B.R. (2005, August 18). Acupuncture for dyspnea in advanced cancer: A randomized, placebo-controlled pilot trial [ISRCTN ]. BMC Palliative Care, 4, 5. 23

24 Bol Viola, R., Kiteley, C., Lloyd, N. S., Mackay, J. A., Wilson, J., Wong, R. K., & Supportive Care Guidelines Group of the Cancer Care Ontario Program in Evidence-Based Care. (2008). The management of dyspnea in cancer patients: a systematic review. Supportive Care in Cancer : Official Journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer, 16(4), doi: /s Wiese, C. H., Barrels, U. E., Graf, B. M., & Hanekop, G. G. (2009). Out-of-hospital opioid therapy of palliative care patients with acute dyspnoea : a retrospective multicenter investigation. Journal of Opioid Management, 5(2), Wilcock, A., Corcoran, R., & Tattersfield, A.E. (1994). Safety and efficacy of nebulized lignocaine in patients with cancer and breathlessness. Palliative Medicine, 8(1), Wilcock, A., Walton, A., Manderson, C., Feathers, L., El Khoury, B., Lewis, M., Tattersfield, A. (2008). Randomised, placebo controlled trial of nebulised furosemide for breathlessness in patients with cancer. Thorax, 63(10), doi: / thx Zeppetella, G. (1997). Nebulized morphine in the palliation of dyspnoea. Palliative Medicine, 11(4), Zhao, I., & Yates, P. (2008). Non-pharmacological interventions for breathlessness management in patients with lung cancer: a systematic review. Palliative Medicine, 22(6), doi: /

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