BIOLOGY. Cell Communication CAMPBELL. Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson. Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick

Transcription

1 CAMPBELL BIOLOGY TENTH EDITION Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson 11 Cell Communication Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick

2 Cellular Messaging Cells can signal to each other and interpret the signals they receive from other cells and the environment Signals are most often chemicals The same small set of cell signaling mechanisms shows up in diverse species and processes

3 Figure 11.1

4 Figure 11.1a Epinephrine

5 Concept 11.1: External signals are converted to responses within the cell Communication among microorganisms provides some insight into how cells send, receive, and respond to signals

6 Evolution of Cell Signaling The yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has two mating types, a and Cells of different mating types locate each other via secreted factors specific to each type Signal transduction pathways convert signals received at a cell s surface into cellular responses The molecular details of signal transduction in yeast and mammals are strikingly similar

7 Figure Exchange of mating factors Receptor a α factor α Yeast cell, mating type a a factor Yeast cell, mating type α

8 Figure Exchange of mating factors Receptor a α factor α Yeast cell, mating type a a factor Yeast cell, mating type α 2 Mating a α

9 Figure Exchange of mating factors Receptor a α factor α Yeast cell, mating type a a factor Yeast cell, mating type α 2 Mating a α 3 New a/ cell a/ α

10 Pathway similarities suggest that ancestral signaling molecules that evolved in prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes were adopted for use in their multicellular descendants Cell signaling is critical in the microbial world A concentration of signaling molecules allows bacteria to sense local population density in a process called quorum sensing

11 Figure Individual rod-shaped cells 0.5 mm 2 2 Aggregation in progress 3 Spore-forming structure (fruiting body) 2.5 mm Fruiting bodies

12 Figure 11.3a 0.5 mm 1 Individual rod-shaped cells

13 Figure 11.3b 0.5 mm 2 Aggregation in progress

14 Figure 11.3c 0.5 mm 3 Spore-forming structure (fruiting body)

15 Figure 11.3d 2.5 mm Fruiting bodies

16 Local and Long-Distance Signaling Cells in a multicellular organism communicate via signaling molecules In local signaling, animal cells may communicate by direct contact Animal and plant cells have cell junctions that directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells Signaling substances in the cytosol can pass freely between adjacent cells

17 Figure 11.4 Plasma membranes Cell wall Gap junctions between animal cells Plasmodesmata between plant cells (a) Cell junctions (b) Cell-cell recognition

18 In many other cases, animal cells communicate using secreted messenger molecules that travel only short distances Growth factors, which stimulate nearby target cells to grow and divide, are one class of such local regulators in animals This type of local signaling in animals is called paracrine signaling

19 Synaptic signaling occurs in the animal nervous system when a neurotransmitter is released in response to an electric signal Local signaling in plants is not well understood beyond communication between plasmodesmata

20 In long-distance signaling, plants and animals use chemicals called hormones Hormonal signaling in animals is called endocrine signaling; specialized cells release hormones, which travel to target cells via the circulatory system The ability of a cell to respond to a signal depends on whether or not it has a receptor specific to that signal

21 Figure 11.5 Local signaling Secreting cell Target cells Electrical signal triggers release of neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse. Local regulator (a) Paracrine signaling Long-distance signaling Secretory vesicles Endocrine cell (b) Synaptic signaling Target cell specifically binds hormone. Target cell Hormone travels in bloodstream. (c) Endocrine (hormonal) signaling Blood vessel

22 Figure 11.5a Local signaling Target cells Secreting cell Local regulator (a) Paracrine signaling Secretory vesicles

23 Figure 11.5b Local signaling Electrical signal triggers release of neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse. Target cell (b) Synaptic signaling

24 Figure 11.5c Long-distance signaling Endocrine cell Target cell specifically binds hormone. Hormone travels in bloodstream. Blood vessel (c) Endocrine (hormonal) signaling

25 The Three Stages of Cell Signaling: A Preview Earl W. Sutherland discovered how the hormone epinephrine acts on cells Sutherland suggested that cells receiving signals went through three processes Reception Transduction Response

26 In reception, the target cell detects a signaling molecule that binds to a receptor protein on the cell surface In transduction, the binding of the signaling molecule alters the receptor and initiates a signal transduction pathway; transduction often occurs in a series of steps In response, the transduced signal triggers a specific response in the target cell

27 Figure EXTRACELLULAR FLUID 1 Receptor Reception Plasma membrane CYTOPLASM Signaling molecule

28 Figure EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Plasma membrane CYTOPLASM Receptor 1 Reception 2 Transduction Relay molecules Signaling molecule

29 Figure EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Plasma membrane CYTOPLASM Receptor 1 Reception 2 Transduction Relay molecules 3 Response Activation of cellular response Signaling molecule

30 Animation: Overview of Cell Signaling

31 Concept 11.3: Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell Signal transduction usually involves multiple steps Multistep pathways can greatly amplify a signal Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for coordination and regulation of the cellular response

32 Signal Transduction Pathways The binding of a signaling molecule to a receptor triggers the first step in a chain of molecular interactions Like falling dominoes, the receptor activates another protein, which activates another, and so on, until the protein producing the response is activated At each step, the signal is transduced into a different form, usually a shape change in a protein

33 Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins is a widespread cellular mechanism for regulating protein activity Protein kinases transfer phosphates from ATP to protein, a process called phosphorylation Many relay molecules in signal transduction pathways are protein kinases, creating a phosphorylation cascade

34 Figure Signaling molecule Receptor Inactive protein kinase 1 Activated relay molecule Active protein kinase 1 Inactive protein kinase 2 P i ATP PP ADP Active protein kinase 2 P Inactive protein kinase 3 P i ATP PP ADP Active protein kinase 3 P Inactive protein P i ATP PP ADP Active protein P Cellular response

35 Figure 11.10a Signaling molecule Receptor Activated relay molecule Inactive protein kinase 1 Active protein kinase 1

36 Figure 11.10b Inactive protein kinase 1 Active protein kinase 1 Phosphorylation cascade Inactive protein kinase 2 P i ATP PP ADP Active protein kinase 2 P Inactive protein kinase 3 P i ATP PP ADP Active protein kinase 3 P

37 Figure 11.10c Inactive protein kinase ATP 3 ADP Active protein PP kinase 3 P i P Inactive protein P i ATP PP ADP Active protein P Cellular response

38 Protein phosphatases rapidly remove the phosphates from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation This phosphorylation and dephosphorylation system acts as a molecular switch, turning activities on and off or up or down, as required

39 Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers Many signaling pathways involve second messengers Second messengers are small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion Second messengers participate in pathways initiated by GPCRs and RTKs Cyclic AMP and calcium ions are common second messengers

40 Cyclic AMP Cyclic AMP (camp) is one of the most widely used second messengers Adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme in the plasma membrane, converts ATP to camp in response to an extracellular signal

41 Figure Adenylyl cyclase Phosphodiesterase Pyrophosphate H 2 O ATP camp AMP

42 Figure 11.11a Adenylyl cyclase Pyrophosphate ATP camp

43 Figure 11.11b Phosphodiesterase H 2 O camp AMP

44 Many signal molecules trigger formation of camp Other components of camp pathways are G proteins, G protein-coupled receptors, and protein kinases camp usually activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates various other proteins Further regulation of cell metabolism is provided by G-protein systems that inhibit adenylyl cyclase

45 Figure First messenger (signaling molecule such as epinephrine) G protein Adenylyl cyclase GTP G protein-coupled receptor ATP camp Second messenger Protein kinase A Cellular responses

46 Understanding of the role of camp in G protein signaling pathways helps explain how certain microbes cause disease The cholera bacterium, Vibrio cholerae, produces a toxin that modifies a G protein so that it is stuck in its active form This modified G protein continually makes camp, causing intestinal cells to secrete large amounts of salt into the intestines Water follows by osmosis and an untreated person can soon die from loss of water and salt

47 Calcium Ions and Inositol Triphosphate (IP 3 ) Calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) act as a second messenger in many pathways Ca 2+ can function as a second messenger because its concentration in the cytosol is normally much lower than the concentration outside the cell A small change in number of calcium ions thus represents a relatively large percentage change in calcium concentration

48 Figure Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ATP Plasma membrane Mitochondrion Nucleus Ca 2+ pump ATP CYTOSOL ATP EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Key High [Ca 2+ ] Low [Ca 2+ ]

49 A signal relayed by a signal transduction pathway may trigger an increase in calcium in the cytosol Pathways leading to the release of calcium involve inositol triphosphate (IP 3 ) and diacylglycerol (DAG) as additional second messengers These two are produced by cleavage of a certain phospholipid in the plasma membrane

50 Figure EXTRA- CELLULAR FLUID Signaling molecule (first messenger) G protein CYTOSOL G protein-coupled receptor GTP Phospholipase C PIP 2 DAG Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen IP 3 -gated calcium channel Ca 2+ IP 3 (second messenger) Nucleus

51 Figure EXTRA- CELLULAR FLUID Signaling molecule (first messenger) G protein CYTOSOL G protein-coupled receptor GTP Phospholipase C PIP 2 DAG Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen Nucleus IP 3 -gated calcium channel Ca 2+ Ca 2+ (second messenger) IP 3 (second messenger)

52 Figure EXTRA- CELLULAR FLUID Signaling molecule (first messenger) G protein CYTOSOL G protein-coupled receptor GTP Phospholipase C PIP 2 DAG Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen Nucleus IP 3 -gated calcium channel Ca 2+ Ca 2+ (second messenger) Various proteins activated IP 3 (second messenger) Cellular responses

53 Animation: Signal Transduction Pathways

54 Concept 11.4: Response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities The cell s response to an extracellular signal is called the output response

55 Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Responses Ultimately, a signal transduction pathway leads to regulation of one or more cellular activities The response may occur in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus Many signaling pathways regulate the synthesis of enzymes or other proteins, usually by turning genes on or off in the nucleus The final activated molecule in the signaling pathway may function as a transcription factor

56 Figure Growth factor Receptor Reception Phosphorylation cascade Transduction CYTOPLASM Inactive transcription factor DNA Active transcription factor P Response NUCLEUS mrna Gene

57 Figure 11.15a Growth factor Receptor Reception Phosphorylation cascade Transduction CYTOPLASM Inactive transcription factor NUCLEUS

58 Figure 11.15b Phosphorylation cascade Transduction CYTOPLASM Inactive transcription factor DNA Active transcription factor P Response Gene NUCLEUS mrna

59 Other pathways regulate the activity of enzymes rather than their synthesis For example, a signal could cause opening or closing of an ion channel in the plasma membrane, or a change in cell metabolism

60 Figure Reception Binding of epinephrine to G protein-coupled receptor (1 molecule) Transduction Inactive G protein Active G protein (10 2 molecules) Inactive adenylyl cyclase Active adenylyl cyclase (10 2 ) Response Glycogen Glucose 1-phosphate (10 8 molecules) ATP Inactive protein kinase A Cyclic AMP (10 4 ) Active protein kinase A (10 4 ) Inactive phosphorylase kinase Active phosphorylase kinase (10 5 ) Inactive glycogen phosphorylase Active glycogen phosphorylase (10 6 )

61 Figure 11.16a Reception Binding of epinephrine to G protein-coupled receptor (1 molecule) Response Glycogen Glucose 1-phosphate (10 8 molecules)

62 Figure 11.16b Transduction Inactive G protein Active G protein (10 2 molecules) Inactive adenylyl cyclase Active adenylyl cyclase (10 2 ) ATP Inactive protein kinase A Cyclic AMP (10 4 ) Active protein kinase A (10 4 )

63 Figure 11.16c Transduction Inactive protein kinase A Cyclic AMP (10 4 ) Active protein kinase A (10 4 ) Inactive phosphorylase kinase Active phosphorylase kinase (10 5 ) Inactive glycogen phosphorylase Active glycogen phosphorylase (10 6 )

64 Signaling pathways can also affect the overall behavior of a cell, for example, a signal could lead to cell division

65 Regulation of the Response A response to a signal may not be simply on or off There are four aspects of signal regulation to consider Amplification of the signal (and thus the response) Specificity of the response Overall efficiency of response, enhanced by scaffolding proteins Termination of the signal

66 Signal Amplification Enzyme cascades amplify the cell s response to the signal At each step, the number of activated products is much greater than in the preceding step

67 The Specificity of Cell Signaling and Coordination of the Response Different kinds of cells have different collections of proteins These different proteins allow cells to detect and respond to different signals The same signal can have different effects in cells with different proteins and pathways Pathway branching and cross-talk further help the cell coordinate incoming signals

68 Figure Signaling molecule Receptor Relay molecules Activation or inhibition Response 1 Response 2 Response 3 Response 4 Response 5 Cell A: Pathway leads to a single response. Cell B: Pathway branches, leading to two responses. Cell C: Cross-talk occurs between two pathways. Cell D: Different receptor leads to a different response.

69 Figure 11.17a Signaling molecule Receptor Relay molecules Response 1 Response 2 Response 3 Cell A: Pathway leads to a single response. Cell B: Pathway branches, leading to two responses.

70 Figure 11.17b Activation or inhibition Response 4 Response 5 Cell C: Cross-talk occurs between two pathways. Cell D: Different receptor leads to a different response.

71 Signaling Efficiency: Scaffolding Proteins and Signaling Complexes Scaffolding proteins are large relay proteins to which other relay proteins are attached Scaffolding proteins can increase the signal transduction efficiency by grouping together different proteins involved in the same pathway In some cases, scaffolding proteins may also help activate some of the relay proteins

72 Figure Signaling molecule Plasma membrane Receptor Scaffolding protein Three different protein kinases

73 Termination of the Signal Inactivation mechanisms are an essential aspect of cell signaling If ligand concentration falls, fewer receptors will be bound Unbound receptors revert to an inactive state