Isaac Newton Academy Revision Booklet- Exam 1 Component 01: Physical factors affecting performance

Transcription

1 Isaac Newton Academy Revision Booklet- Exam 1 Component 01: Physical factors affecting performance 1.1 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.2 Physical training.

2 Functions of the skeleton

3 Location of Major Bones Bone stores crucial nutrients, minerals, and lipids and produces blood cells that nourish the body and play a vital role in protecting the body against infection. Bones have many functions, including the following: Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues. Bone Location Arm - humerus, radius and ulna. Hand - Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges. Sternum and Ribs. Femur the thigh bone. Patella the knee cap. Tibia the shin bone, the larger of the two leg bones located below the knee cap. Fibula the smaller of the two leg bones located below the knee cap.

4 The OCR Spec expects us to know the following regarding synovial joints: The definition of a synovial joint, Articulating bones of the knee and elbow hinge joints and also the articulating bones of the shoulder and hip Ball and socket joints Hinge Joint- A hinge joint is found at the knee and the elbow, Articulating bones of the elbow joint are the Humerus radius and Ulna. Articulating bones of the knee are the Femur and Tibia. Synovial Joint- This is a freely moveable joint in thich the bones surfaces are covered by cartilage and connected by fibrous connective tissue capsule lines with synovial fluid Articulating bones- These are bones that move within a joint Ball and socket joint- Allows a wide range of movement, they can be found at the hip and shoulder. Articulating bones of the shoulder are Humerus and Scapula. Articulating bones of the hip are the Pelvis and the Femur.

5 What is a hinge joint? A hinge joint is a common class of synovial joint that includes the ankle, elbow, and knee joints. Hinge joints are formed between two or more bones where the bones can only move along one axis, which allows the movement of flexion or extension. Flexion: An example of a hinge joint in a physical activity is using the elbow joint in bicep curls or using the knee joint when sprinting. Extension: At the knee, a basketball player drives up to the basket from bent legs to straight, extension occurs at the knee joint. At the elbow, when making a basketball set shot the bent arm straightens as you release the ball, creating extension at the elbow joint.

6 What is a Ball and socket joint? A ball and socket joint is also a synovial joint that is found in the hip and the shoulder. They allow movement in almost every direction, Including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and rotation which is also known as circumduction. A ball and socket joint is made up of a round end of one bone that fits into a small cup-like area of another bone. Flexion: Lifting the arms out of the water during a backstroke in swimming. Extension: When a rugby player extends the hip in preparation for kicking through the ball, to get maximum power. Adduction: A rugby player tackling another player will hold on to the player by adducting her/his arms as he/she tackles. Abduction: A gymnast with his/her leg lifted to the side of his/her body shows abduction. Rotation: A ballet dancer moves into first position and rotates the hip joint laterally. Circumduction: A gymnast on the beam takes her leg off the beam and moves it out and round to place her foot ahead of her front foot.

7 WHAT IS CARTILAGE? Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue; rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, and many other body components. WHAT IS A TENDON? It is a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone. WHAT IS A LIGAMENT? A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.

8 Location of major groups Deltoids Deltoids used in all movements of the arm. Most important function is lift arm straight outwards and upwards (abduction) e.g. to make a block in volleyball with straight arms above head. Trapezius causes extension at the neck e.g. rugby forward will use this in rugby scrum to bind into opponents. Abdominals bend the body forwards at the hip causing flexion at the vertebral column e.g. performing sit up exercise will use the abdominals Quadriceps provide stability to the knee joint and extends or straightens the knee joint e.g. a long jumper when driving off the board will straighten the knee joint at take-off using the quadriceps. Pectorals this causes adduction and flexion at the shoulder joint e.g. a rugby player making a tackle would hold on to their opponent using the pectoral muscle Hamstrings straighten the hip and straightens the knee joint e.g. a hockey player running across the pitch will be using her hamstrings in the running action to bend her knees Biceps cause flexion at the elbow e.g. bicep curl during weight training Triceps cause extension at the elbow e.g. backhand in table tennis Gastrocnemius-This muscle is used to bend the knee or straighten or plantar flex the ankle. A swimmer performing a front crawl will point their toes in the leg action using the gastrocnemius. Latissimus-dorsi- Broad back muscle. Example: A tennis player who swings their arm back to hit the ball when serving. Gluteal- These are the muscles in your buttocks. They cause extension at the hip. A sprinter will use the gluteal in the leg action of sprinting.

9 Role of muscles in movement Muscles that work together like this are called antagonistic pairs. Biceps and triceps During a bicep curl, the first phase where there is flexion at the elbow this is the Bicep working as the agonist and the Tricep relaxing as the antagonist. During the second phase when the elbow joint is extending the roles reverse and the Tricep is the agonist and the bicep the antagonist. Hamstrings and quadriceps During a squat the first phase when you are going down and there is flexion at the Knee joint this is the hamstrings working as the agonist and the quadriceps relaxing as the antagonist. During the second phase of a squat you are pushing up and the Knee joint is extending the roles reverse and the quadriceps is contracting the agonist and the Hamstrings are relaxing, the antagonist. Agonist The working muscle that produces or controls the movement. This is known as the prime mover. For example the Bicep is the muscle that produces flexion at the elbow. Antagonist Movement caused by the agonist is countered by the action of the opposing muscle, called the agonist. For example the flexion at the elbow caused by the biceps is opposed by the lengthening of the triceps which acts as the antagonist, relaxing muscle. Fixator: This is the muscle that works with others to stabilize the origin of the prime mover. E.G The trapezius contracts to stabilise the origin of the biceps.

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11 Lever Systems 1 st class lever- Neck Your skull is the lever arm and the neck muscles at the back of the skull provide the force (effort) to lift your head up against the weight of the head (load). When the neck muscles relax, your head nods forward. E.g. heading a football. 2 nd class lever- ankle Standing on tip toes is a Class 2 lever. The pivot is at your toe joints and your foot acts as a lever arm. Your calf muscles and Achilles tendon provide the effort when the calf muscle contracts. The load is your body weight and is lifted by the effort (muscle contraction). E.g. in ballet when performing a pirouette. 3 rd class lever- elbow A bent arm is a Class 3 lever. The pivot is at the elbow and the forearm acts as the lever arm. The biceps muscle provides the effort (force) and bends the forearm against the weight of the forearm and any weight that the hand might be holding. E.g. a bicep curl during weight lifting. Fulcrum - The pivot. In the body this will be the joints Load - The load to be moved, usually a weight. Effort -The force applied to move the object. In the body this will be a muscular contraction. Mechanical advantage- Some levers (first class and second class) provide mechanical advantage. This means they allow you to move a large output load with a smaller effort load.

12 Plane of Movement Sagittal plane Vertically divides the body into the left and right hand sides. Allows for movements such as somersaults, forward rolls, sit ups and running. Flexion and Extension Transverse plane Horizontally divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections. This allows for movement such as a pirouette in dance, a back hand in tennis or bowl in cricket. Rotation & circumduction Frontal plane Vertically divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections. This allows for movements such as star jumps, cartwheels, sidekicks in kick boxing and the rings in gymnastics. Abductions & Adduction. Transverse Axes The Transverse axes travels through the centre of mass at the waist from left to right. This is used for movement such as sit-ups and somersaults in gymnastics, Longitudinal Axes The longitudinal axes travel through the centre of mass from head to feet. This is used for movements such as a pirouette in dance or spin in ice skating. Frontal Axes The Frontal axes travels through the centre of mass at the waist from front to back. Allows movement such as sidekicks in kick boxing and cartwheels.

13 Double circulatory system The cardiovascular system is made up of two one that connects the heart to the lungs and the heart to the rest of the other organs of the body. This involves the pulmonary and systemic systems. LORD: Left oxygenated, Right deoxygenated The pulmonary system involves transportation of blood between the lungs and the heart. The pulmonary artery takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs. The blood gets oxygenated and off-loads carbon dioxide. The pulmonary vain then takes oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. The systemic system involves blood being pumped from left ventricle of the heart to the aorta. The blood is then transported to the rest of the body. Veins then return the blood, which is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, to the heart. The blood then enters the right atrium via the vena cava. Blood vessels Arteries: These blood vessels carry blood from at high pressure from the heart. They have thick muscular walls. The largest of this type of blood vessel is called the aorta. All of these types of blood vessels carry oxygenated blood EXCEPT one (the pulmonary). Veins: These blood vessels carry blood towards the heart. They have thinner walls and contain valves to stop backflow. The largest of this type of blood vessel is the vena cava. All of this type of blood vessels carries deoxygenated blood EXCEPT on (the pulmonary). Capillaries: These are the smallest blood vessels. Since they only contain a single layer of cells. This allows diffusion of important substances (e.g. carbon dioxide and oxygen) to and from the blood.

14 Pathway of blood through the heart Deoxygenated blood arrives at the left-hand side of the heart: 1.It enters the heart through the vena cava. 2.Blood flows into the right atrium. 3.Blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. 4.Blood is pumped out of the heart, along the pulmonary artery, to the lungs. Oxygenated blood arrives at the right-hand side of the heart: 1.It enters the heart through the pulmonary vein. 2.Blood flows into the left atrium. 3.Blood is pumped through the bicuspid value into the left ventricle. 4.Blood is pumped out of the heart through the semilunar valve, along the aorta, to the rest of the body. Septum: The septum of the heart is the dividing wall between the right and left sides of the heart. Heart rate (HR): Is the number of times the heart beats (or the ventricles pump blood out) in one minute. Stroke volume (SV): Is the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricles each time they contract. Cardiac output (Q): Is the amount of blood pumped from the heart every minute and can be calculated by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume. Red blood cells: They are the most abundant blood cells. The primary function of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen to cells around the body and deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs.

15 Structure and function of the respiratory system The pathway of air through the respiratory system goes from: Nose-Trachea-Bronchi-Bronchiole-Alveoli Breathing rate- the amount of beats per minute Tidal volume- The amount of air inhaled or exhaled Minute ventilation- the volume of gas inhaled or exhaled

16 Intercostal Breathing in/ Breathing out Alveoli - They are responsible for gaseous exchange between the lungs and the blood - The walls of the alveoli are extremely thin and are lined by a thin film of water - The alveoli s are tiny air filled sacs and there are millions of them in the lungs - The dissolving of oxygen from air as it is breathed into the lungs (inspired) Gaseous exchange - Within the alveoli an exchange of gasses take place between the gasses inside the alveoli and the blood - Blood in the alveoli has a higher carbon dioxide concentration which is produced by the body s cell - The air in the alveoli has a much lower concentration of carbon dioxide which allows carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood and the alveoli - Blood arriving in the alveoli has a lower oxygen concentration while the air in the alveoli has a higher oxygen concentration. - Therefore, oxygen moves into the blood, again by diffusion and combines with the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.

17 Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise Examples of Aerobic Exercise Aerobic Exercise Long distance running(marathon) Long distance cycling Long distance swimming Walking Anaerobic exercise Sprinting Weightlifting Long Jump High Jump

18 Long-term effects of exercise Longer-term effects occur as the body adapts to regular exercise, including your heart getting larger, bones becoming denser and the vital capacity of your breath deepening. EFFECTS ON THE BONES, JOINTS AND MUSCLES - Increase in bone width and density Muscle, tendons and ligaments get stronger Joints are more stable Increased flexibility at joints Muscles get bigger (hypertrophy) Muscle endurance improves EFFECTS ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- Strength of diaphragm and intercostal muscles Increased number of alveoli Increase in vital capacity (amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after breathing in as soon as possible.) Increase in oxygen delivered to and CO2 removed from the body EFFECTS ON THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM- Heart muscle increases in size and strength (Hypertrophy of the heart) Cardiac output (amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute) increases Lower resting heart rate and quicker recovery rate Reduced risk of heart disease Increased risk of heart disease Increased number of capillaries in muscles (capillarisation) Increased volume of blood and red blood cells Muscular strength: The fast twitch fibres will increase in size- this is called muscle hypertrophy. Muscles will also be able to work for longer and the athlete s muscle fatigue or tiredness will be delayed following this type of training. Fatigue: develops temporarily during the most intense periods of a football game, as well as towards the end of a game, and the two types of fatigue are related to different physiological systems. Temporary fatigue is proposed to be caused by muscle acidification and depolarization of the muscle resting membrane potential, and fatigue at the end of a game may associate with depleted muscle glycogen stores in individual muscle fibres or muscle cell compartments.

19 Long-term effects of exercise Stroke volume: Cardiac output increases as a result of an increase in stroke volume or heart rate, it also increases due to regular exercise. The heart experiences hypertrophy which means it gets bigger, allowing more blood to be pumped out by each ventricle. Stroke volume will also increase an individual s cardiac output because more blood is being pumped per heart beat as we exercise. Aerobic exercise: aerobic fitness is the ability to continuously exercise without tiring. The more oxygen that can be transported around the body and the more the muscles can utilise this oxygen determines the level of aerobic endurance you have. Tidal volume: Increased tidal volume increased breathing rate. A long/short term effect of exercise on the respiratory system is an increase in breathing rate. This is due to the muscles demanding more oxygen and an increase in carbon dioxide levels stimulates faster and deeper breathing. Minute ventilation: Minute ventilation is the amount of oxygen inspired by the body in a minute. When you exercise more oxygen is inspired in a minute. This is because your body gets used to bringing in more oxygen to supply the working muscles.

20 Short-Term Effects of Exercise Effects: Stroke Volume will increase-the amount of blood pumped out of heart (left ventricle to the body) during each contraction. There will become a build-up of lactic acid in the muscles-when performing high intensity exercise. Your heart rate will increase When exercise begins your Heart Rate will rise rapidly - Number of heart beats per minute. When exercising the muscles start to work, they need more oxygen so the respiratory system responds by getting more oxygen into the lungs. The blood carries greater amounts of oxygen and the heart responds to pump more oxygenated blood around the body. Cardiac Output will increase-the volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart. Stroke Volume x Heart Rate Muscle temperature will increase. Minute Ventilation increases during exercise. Minute Ventilation is the volume of air that is inspired and expired in one minute. When doing a 100m sprint, the body temperature will increase and there will be a build of lactic acid in the muscles. The breathing rate and tidal volume will increase and so will the heart rate. Respiratory rate (Breathing Rate) will increase as the body needs more oxygen. Tidal Volume increases during exercise. Tidal Volume is the volume of air either inspired of expired per breath.

21 Components Of Fitness Muscular Endurance Is the ability to use voluntary muscles many times without becoming tired. It helps sportspeople to sprint or repeat quick actions for longer. Cycling- The leg muscles are being constantly needed to be used for a long period of time without getting tired. Squats and Lunges-Squats and lunges develop strength and muscular endurance in the quadriceps, glutes, hamstrings and calves. Muscular Endurance is needed as lunges and squats are performed multiple times to develop the Quadriceps muscle mass. The test for this component is Sit up bleep test and Press up bleep test. Speed The ability to move the body quickly. This helps all game players to move into position or counter on the counter attack quicker which can catch out the opponents. 100M sprint- This requires speed as the athlete is running for a short period of time needing to cover a substantial distance. The test for Speed is the 30M sprint. Strength Strength is the maximal force that a muscle can exert as it contracts. Strength can be further divided into static (the muscles contract and hold one position), dynamic (the muscles move contracting and extending) and explosive strength or power (the muscle contraction happens at high speed).weightlifting requires strength as it enables athletes to lift heavy weights.the test for strength is 1 rep max. Power Power is the ability to use strength at speed. Power is needed in sports such as boxing this is because the boxer has to move at great speeds but also has to hit the oponent with hard powerful shots to allow the boxer to capitalise on this. The Test for Power is standing long jump.

22 Flexibility Components Of Fitness The is defined as the range of motion of your joints or the ability of your joints to move freely. It also refers to the mobility of your muscles, which allows for more movement around the joints. Flexibility is needed gymnastics because without the right range of motion, gymnasts will be unable to learn how to do certain skills. For example in the floor routine gymnasts need to be flexible and perform skills that will impress the judges. The test for flexibility is the sit and reach test. Agility The ability to change the position of the body quickly and with control. This helps team players dodge their opponents. Agility is needed is Slalom skiing because the skiier has to move in and out of the posts quickly at a high speed on a downwards hill. The test for agility is the Illonois Test. Balance The ability to retain the centre of mass above the base of support when stationary (static balance) or moving (dynamic balance). This helps gymnasts maintain their position and prevents games players from falling over at speed. A winger in football needs balance as defenders may try to lunge in and take you off balance so the winger has to take the contact and carry on with the attack and avoid falling which slows down the pace of the game. The test for balance is the Stork Stand Test. Co-ordination Is the ability to use two or more body parts at the same time. This helps all athletes to move smoothly and quickly especially when also having to control a ball. Co ordination is used in table tennis as the eyes and tha hands need to work together in order to hit a shot such as the Backhand Push. The test for Co-ordination is the Ruler Drop Test

23 Components Of Fitness Reaction Reaction time time The ability to react quickly in sports situations is crucial if your opponent or sprint out sprint The ability to react quickly in sports situations is crucial if your opponent or sprint out sprint another athlete. Good reaction time for a sprinter is important as they can get off to a good another athlete. Good reaction time for a sprinter is important as they can get off to a good start. The test for reaction is ruler drop Test. start. The test for reaction is ruler drop Test. Cardio vascular Endurance Is the ability to continuously exercise without getting tired. Athletes such as long distance swimmers rely on high levels of cardiovascular endurance. Sports that need this are: Running Swimming Cross country skiing

24 Optimising training FITT Frequency - Number of training sessions in a week. This will depend on the performer s level of ability and fitness. An athlete going to train 4 times a week compared to the previous 2 times a week Intensity This is the intensity of the exercise undertaken. This will again take into account the individual differences of the performer. A long distance runner starting at 50% of their full potential and increasing to 70% over time Type Type of training to be considered that fulfils specific needs. A warm up which includes stretching the legs before a football match. Time Time or duration that the training takes up. E.g. Training long distance running for 30 minutes. Types of training Continuous training continuous training aims to seek to maintain and improve cardiovascular training. E.g. running Plyometric plyometric is a form of training that involves rapid and repeated stretching and contracting of the muscles. E.g. jumping on and off a table helps the legs. Weight training in circuit training, it is the body weight that gets used as resistance to enable the body to work hard. For strength to be developed, more resistance can be used in the form of weights. E.g. bicep curls. Circuit training this involves a series of exercises arranged in a particular way called a circuit because the training involves repetition of each activity. E.g. for football you have to train the legs so the exercises would be focused on the legs Fartlek training Fartlek is also known as speed play and is often used to maintain and improve aerobic endurance. E.g. jogging for 20 metres and then walking for 20 metres and then sprinting for 20 metres. Interval training interval training is one of the most popular types of training for aerobic endurance. It is adaptable to individual needs and sports. E.g. There should be intervals after a short amount of high intensity exercise. HIIT training High intensity interval training is training technique which alternates speed and recovery intervals to increase the overall intensity of a workout Warm up Pulse raising this includes exercises that slowly increases the heart rate and gradually increases body temperature, for example jogging

25 Mobility exercises that take the joints through their full range of movement e.g. arm swings Dynamic movements this involves movement that show a change of speed and direction for example shuttle runs Skill rehearsal this involves practicing or rehearsing common movement patterns and skills that will be used in the activity e.g. practising lay ups before the basketball match Stretching this can include developmental stretches gradually increasing the difficulty of each stretch and dynamic stretches that include more ballistic movements or static stretches where the body remains still or static e.g. trying to touch your toes. Physical benefits of a warm up Reduces the likelihood of injury and muscle soreness Releases adrenaline which speeds up the delivery of oxygen to the working muscles Increase in muscle temperature. This ensures that there is a ready supply of energy and the muscle becomes flexible to prevent injury Increases the pliability and of ligaments and tendons. Increases the body temperature and heart rate Increases the speed of muscle contractions Cool down Low intensity exercises gradually lowers the pulse rate and reduces the body s temperature for example easy movement or light running or jogging Stretching includes steady and static stretches, for example hamstring stretches Physical benefits of a cool down The cool down is important to help: Circulate blood and oxygen Transition the body back to a resting state Increase the removal of waste products such as lactic acid Lower the body temperature Gradually reduce the breathing rate Aid recovery by stretching muscles Lower the heart rate Reduce the risk of muscle soreness and

26 Principles of Training Specificity- training must be matched to the needs of the sporting activity to improve fitness in the body parts the sport uses. Progression-start slowly and gradually increases the amount of exercise and keep overloading. Overload-fitness can only be improved by training more than you normally do. You must work hard. Reversibility- any adaptation that takes place as a result of training will be reversed when you stop training. If you take a break or don t train often enough you will lose fitness. Frequency- decide how often to train. Intensity- choose how hard to train. Time- decide for how long to train. Type- decide which methods of training to use. Programme example: Cardiovascular endurance is improved with continuous training. Week 1-10 minute run specific to improving cardiovascular endurance. Week 2- run for 15 minutes twice to show progression and frequency. Week 3- run for 15 minutes 3 times with more effort being put in to show intensity. Week 4- change terrain to show overload, e.g. run on hills or sand. Week 5- Don t do too much overload as otherwise you will gain an injury and reversibility will occur. Repeat previous week. Week 6- Run for 25 minutes 5 times to show the time you train for is increasing.

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28 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Prevention of Injury In cricket, a batsperson typically wears a helmet, pads and gloves in case a fast-moving ball strikes them. Other examples of personal protective equipment are shin pads, gum shields or mouth guards and knee pads. Correct Clothing/Footwear: Incorrect clothing and footwear can cause injury to the performer or an opponent. Clothing should always be appropriate for the activity, jewellery removed, hair tied back and laces tied. Footwear is very important and many sports require specialist shoes or boots. Football boots have studs for grip, astro trainers have soles which stick for turning safely Lifting and carrying equipment safely: To prevent injuries such as back strains and broken limbs, all large and dangerous equipment should be moved safely and correctly. Correct posture should be maintained throughout (bend knees, back flat and straight). Use of warm up and cool down: Warming up the muscles and joints helps to prevent injury during training and competition, as they are better prepared for sudden movements. Cooling down effectively helps remove lactic acid and restores muscles to their pre-exercise length, helping to reduce injury risk in the next session. Appropriate level of competition If competitors are not evenly matched or fairly balanced there is a greater risk of injury. Competitions are made safe and fair by the use of weight, age and gender categories or handicap systems. Sports such as boxing and wrestling match opponents according to their weight, for example super heavyweight, flyweight. Sports Hall: Hazards and safety risks: Floor well maintained and cleaned of slip hazards. Equipment stored safely, moved carefully and secured when being used. Playing Field: Well maintained pitches - even surface, no holes/ruts/mounds, short grass. Checked for stones, bottles, litter. Equipment well maintained and secured (goalposts, nets pegged properly, corner flags). Fitness Centre: Appropriate level of supervision. Equipment/weights/machines well maintained and checked daily. Users given adequate training and safety advice, particularly with weight equipment. Hygiene standards adhered to, such as wiping down equipment (affects grip). Slip hazards minimised, particularly in changing/shower rooms (wet floors/strewn belongings). Artificial Outdoor Areas: Astroturf surface is smooth and wrinkle free, no joints/stitching visible, no bald patches. Adequate sand/water applied. Checked for bottles, litter. Equipment well maintained and secured. Swimming Pool: Lifeguards. Depth signs. Behaviour rules displayed and adhered to (running/shouting/bombi ng). Pool well maintained.