UI CEREBRAL. RELATII NEURON-GLIE

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1 PARTICULARITATI ALE CIRCULAŢIEI ŞI I METABOLISMULUI UI CEREBRAL. RELATII NEURON-GLIE Ana-Maria Zăgrean, azagrean@univermed-cdgm.ro Laborator Neuroştiinţe, Catedra Fiziologie, UMF Carol Davila Bucureşti Premise - functie nervoasa status energetic celular metabolism aerob perfuzie sanguina - vulnerabilitatea creierului la hipoxie/deprivare de substrat metabolic

2 Vulnerabilitatea creierului la hipoxie Metabolism aerob : 95% din ATP-ul cerebral este derivat din fosforilarea oxidativă cerebrală Absenta rezervelor energetice cerebrale Oprirea fluxului sanguin cerebral: - pierderea stării de conştienţă în sec - modificări ireversibile cerebrale în 3-5 min De când ştim că avem nevoie de oxigenul din aer? 1660 Robert Boyle: deprivarea de aer duce la moartea animalului John Mayow: 1/5 din aerul ventilat este folosit pentru combustie 1772 Joseph Priestley şi Carl Scheele: izolarea unui gaz în care şoarecii pot supravieţui mai mult Antoine Lavoisier denumeşte acest gaz oxigen şi îi intuieşte semnificaţia fiziologică 1878 Paul Bert: hipoxemia cauzează rău de înălţime şi oxigenul este toxic la presiuni crescute

3 Ions in the brain, George Somjen, 2004 CREIERUL = unul din organele cele mai active metabolic doar 2% din greutatea corpului debit sanguin: 15% din debitul cardiac consum de O 2 : 20% din consumul total de 250 ml O 2 /min consum de glucoză: 25% din consumul total 3,5 ml O 2 /100g/min ~ constant în stări de veghe sau somn O 2 utilizat preferenţial pentru oxidarea glucozei ATP $ 250 cal/min 1275 cal/min 1. Menţinerea gradientelor ionice şi a potenţialului membranar de repaus = menţinerea excitabilităţii. 2. Sinteza de noi molecule cu rol structural sau funcţional

4 Cuplarea metabolismului neuronal cu fluxul sanguin cerebral implica conexiuni neuro-glio glio-vasculare metabolism cerebral O 2, glucozăg perfuzie sanguină Conexiuni intercelulare in SNC Astrocitul: rol structural; metabolic; modulare transmitere sinaptică prin captarea de neurotransmiţători, reglarea concentraţiei ionice a spaţiului extracelular; componenta a BHE; reglare flux sanguin Oligodendrocitul: rol structural, mielinizare în SNC Microglia: fagocitoză, răspuns imun Celula ependimară: rol structural, producţie de LCR, transport neurohormoni

5 Conexiuni interneuronale si neuro-gliale in vitro Laborator Culturi Celulare, Dr. AM Zagrean Cuplarea metabolismului neuronal cu fluxul sanguin cerebral Activitate neuronala: - metabolismului conc. interstiţiale a H +, CO 2, K + adenozinei - PaO 2 < 50 mmhg ( ph perivascular, adenozinei) relaxarea muşchiului neted vascular extracţiei de O 2 rezistenţei vasculare cerebrale disponibilului de O 2 perfuziei sanguine

6 Creierul este dependent de glucoză GLUCOZA: - metabolizare aerobă obligatorie pentru menţinerea funcţiilor cerebrale - utilizată pentru: producere de ATP (38 ATP/molec. de G) sinteză de aminoacizi, proteine, lipide şi glicogen neurotransm. (glutamat, aspartat, GABA, Ach) - utilizarea rapidă a glucozei din sânge (25% din consumul total de G) - captare în exces cu 7% faţă de necesarul energetic, depozitare foarte scăzută sub formă de glicogen - [G] i ~ 0 Transportori ai glucozei la nivel cerebral Transport facilitat al glucozei, mediat de transportori specifici: GLUT1 GLUT7 În creier: GLUT1, 3 şi 5: - BHE, astrocite, neuroni: GLUT1 - Neuroni: GLUT3 - Microglii: GLUT5

7 Căi preferenţiale de metabolizare a glucozei în n creier Glucoză Glucoză-6-fosfat 1. Glicoliza = calea preferenţială în creier ciclul acizilor tricarboxilici 2. Calea pentozo-fosfaţilor 3. Glicogeneza În mică măsură are loc metabolizarea glucozei şi prin gluconeogeneză Suferinţa hipoglicemică cerebrală Hipoglicemia creşterea concentraţiilor extracelulare ale glutamatului, GABA şi dopaminei Utilizarea aminoacizilor (glutamat şi glutamină) ca substraturi energetice alternative insuficienţă a neurotransmisiei glutamatergice, acetilcolinergice sau GABA-ergice însoţită de apariţia undelor lente pe EEG

8 Substraturi alternative la glucoză Corpi cetonici (acetoacetat, β-hidroxibutirat) - substrat normal utilizat la NN şi sugari (30-70% din MEC) - substrat de supravieţuire în absenţa glucozei, în condiţii de cetonemie, la adulţi Acizi graşi Aminoacizi (disponibilitate scăzută) Lactat şi piruvat (în cond. de activitate neuronală crescută, producere intensificata la nivel astrocitar) Rezerve energetice cerebrale minimale ATP: 3 µmoli/g în absenţa glucozei, ATP se consumă în 6 sec... prin regenerarea din 2 ADP, ATP se consumă în 9 sec... Fosfocreatinina (PCr): 3-5 µmoli/g formă labilă de depozitare a energiei la ph fiziologic funcţionează ca regenerator al ATP-ului PCr + ADP + H + creatinină + ATP consumul ATP în 20 sec... Glicogenul de la nivel glial

9 Procese consumatoare de energie în SNC Menţinerea gradientelor electrochimice transmembranare şi a potenţialului membranar prin transportul ionic activ (50% din consumul energetic este utilizat de pompe: Na + /K + -ATPaza, pompa de Ca 2+ ) Sinteza de neurotransmiţători şi macromolecule Activitatea sinaptică şi recaptarea neurotransmiţătorilor Transportul axonal Menţinerea integrităţii structurale, celulare şi tisulare Menţinerea gradientelor electrochimice transmembranare: pompe ionice

10 Sinteza cerebrală a glutamatului şi i aspartatului Glutamatul şi aspartatul: - nu trec BHE - sintetizaţi cerebral din glucoză şi alţi precursori - sinteză şi metabolizare: în astrocite şi neuroni α-kgdh = α-ketoglutarat-dehidrogenază GAD = decarboxilaza ac. glutamic Metabolismul glutamatului Transportori ai glutamatului: EAAC1 transportor pentru AAE GLT-1 transportor al glutamatului GLAST transportor al glutamatului şi aspartatului [Na+]i Enzime implicate: 1 - transaminază 2 - glutamin sintetază 3 - glutaminază A EEAC1

11 Neurotransmisia glutamatergică: corelaţii neuron - astrocit GLNase glutaminaza, GS - glutamin sintetază

12 Rolul astrocitelor în metabolismul cerebral Astrocitele perivasculare: rol în fluxul de substrat energetic către neuroni Astrocitele perisinaptice: tampon pentru K +, H + recaptare neurotransmiţători Rezerve de glicogen (conţin glicogen-sintetază) Număr scăzut de mitocondrii, rezistenţă mai bună la hipoxie/ischemie Contribuţia astrocitară la metabolismul cerebral al glucozei rata bazală de utilizare a glucozei (determinare PET, cu 2-DG radioacticvă) în astrocite: nmol/mg/min în neuroni: 6 nmol/mg/min numărul mai mare al astrocitelor comparativ cu cel al neuronilor creştere semnificativă a metabolizării G în astrocite în timpul activităţii neuronale

13 Astrocitele asigură substratul energetic necesar neuronilor, în n funcţie de starea de activitate Activitatea neuronală recapt. astrocitară a glutamat [Na + ] i activarea Na +, K + -ATPazei [ATP] i astrocitar (+) activitatea fosfofructokinazei rata captării şi a metabolizării glucozei la nivel astrocitar Intermediari metabolici eliberaţi i de astrocite Lactat: - sistem de transport specific, saturabil, prin membrana neuronală - 18 molec ATP/1 molec piruvat Piruvat α-ketoglutarat Citrat malat

14 Rolul astrocitelor în n metabolismul glicogenului Glicogenul - tampon metabolic în timpul activităţilor fiziologice cerebrale. Rata de consum/reînnoire a glicogenului cerebral este foarte rapidă, dependentă de activitatea sinaptică. Glicogenoliza în ariile cerebrale activate este declanşată prin acţiunea receptor-mediată a unor neurotransmiţători: monoaminele (noradrenalină, serotonină, histamină), peptide (VIP - vasoactive intestinal peptide, PACAP pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide), adenozina

15 Functia celulelor gliale considerate initial elemente celulare pasive, cu rol structural si metabolic. evidentierea celulelor gliale ca partener activ in transmiterea sinaptica a dat nastere conceptului de sinapsa tripartita care considera, ca al treilea element al sinapsei, celula gliala; celulele gliale sunt asociate in special cu conexiunile interneuronale active. comunicarea bidirectionala robusta intre celulele gliale si neuroni la nivelul sinapsei, sustinuta prin: - prezenta receptorilor gliali pentru o gama larga de neurotransmitatori (glutamat, GABA, catecolamine, purine, serotonina, Ach si diferite peptide) - eliberarea gliala de transmitatori chimici (ATP, glutamat) care stimuleaza neuronii postsinaptici si moduleaza transmiterea sinaptica la nivelul neuronului presinaptic - recaptarea gliala a neurotransmitatorilor din fanta sinaptica cu rol in controlul functiei sinaptice. Functia celulelor gliale mentinerea homeostaziei mediului extra-neuronal (ph, concentratii ionice [K+]), cu impact in mentinerea extitabilitatii neuronale astrocitele asigura o punte neuro-vasculara, cu rol in cuplarea fluxului cerebral vascular cu statusul de activitate neuronal si implicit cu rol de reglare a circulatiei cerebrale. jonctiuni de tip gap intre astrocite si neuroni, care mediaza interactiunile electrice intre aceste tipuri celulare, prezente in anumite zone ale creierului (locus ceruleus) celulele gliale pot prezenta activitate spontana evidentiata prin oscilatii spontane ale Ca intracelular la nivel glial (unde de calciu), identificate in sectiuni de hipocamp (Nett, 2001), talamus ventrobazal (Parri, 2001) si retina (Newman, 2002).

16 Synaptic astrocytes 1. regulate synaptic transmission by - responding to ATP and glutamate, released from the presynaptic neuron - uptake of glutamate from the synaptic cleft via membrane transporters (green arrow) or the release of glutamate upon reversal of the transporter induced by [Na+]i - D-serine released from astrocyte strengthen synaptic transmission by coactivating NMDA receptors in the postsynaptic membrane, or reduce synaptic transmission by secreting transmitter-binding proteins (TBP 2. communicate with adjacent astrocytes via gap junctions and with distant astrocytes via extracellular ATP. 3. the rise in Ca2+ causes release of glutamate from astrocytes, and ATP is released via an unknown mechanism, which propagates ATP signaling to An electron micrograph of a synapse surrounded adjacent cells. by an astrocyte (yellow) from the spinal cord of rat GluR, glutamate receptor; Ado, adenosine; IP3, inositol trisphosphate; P1, adenosine From Fields and Stevens-Graham, 2005 receptor; P2, ATP receptor. Comunicare neuro-gliala unda de calciu in retele gliale Calcium imaging reveals communication between neurons and glia. (A) Molecules released during synaptic transmission bind receptors on glia that cause increases in intracellular Ca2+ (rainbow colored cells), which are propagated as waves through glial networks. (B) Increases or decreases in axonal firing may coincide with the passage of a glial Ca2+ wave. Oligodendrocytes (purple) myelinate CNS axons. Vm, membrane voltage. From Fields and Stevens-Graham, 2005

17 CIRCULAŢIA CEREBRALĂ: PARTICULARITATI Aport sanguin cerebral: - artere carotidiene - sistem vertebrobazilar Flux sanguin cerebral = ml/min Capacitatea complexă de adaptare a circulaţiei cerebrale: - anatomic, prin prezenţa multiplelor vase colaterale de comunicare şi a unor modele de organizare regională a distribuţiei microvascularizaţiei cerebrale - funcţional, prin modularea fină a perfuziei sanguine în funcţie de rata metabolică cerebrală ORGANIZAREA MACROSCOPICĂ A CIRCULAŢIEI CEREBRALE ARTERIALE

18 POLIGONUL WILLIS RAMURI PRINCIPALE CORTICALE ŞI RELAŢIILE LOR SPAŢIALE SSA - spaţiu subarahnoidian, A - artere, P - pia mater, SSP - spaţiu subpial, C - creier

19 UNITATEA NEURO-VASCULARĂ CIRCULAŢIA CEREBRALĂ: PARAMETRII Debitul sanguin cerebral (DSC) DSC la om ml/100 g/min, ml/min DSC cortical: 80 ml/100 g/min; DSC substanţă albă: 20 ml/100 g/min Volumul sanguin cerebral (VSC) = capacitatea patului vascular cerebral; 100 ml; permite reînnoirea sângelui cerebral de 8-11 x / min Presiunea de perfuzie cerebrala (PPC): forţa de propulsie a sângelui în patul vascular cerebral = diferenţa dintre presiunea arteriala medie şi presiunea venoasa intracraniana (pvi = 5 10 mmhg) ~ mmhg Rezistenţa vascularã cerebralã (RVC) = suma factorilor care se opun trecerii fluxului sanguin prin patul vascular: presiunea intracerebrală, vâscozitatea sângelui, tonusul vaselor cerebrale, calibrul vaselor cerebrale

20 REGLAREA CIRCULAŢIEI CEREBRALE - sistemic & local - nervos & umoral Particularităţi: intervenţia promptã şi adecvatã a factorilor locali de control, în relaţie cu dependenţa critică a creierului faţă de supleerea cu O 2 şi glucoză CONTROLUL NERVOS AL CIRCULAŢIEI CEREBRALE La nivel sistemic, prin reglarea TA: centri reflecşi cardio-vasculari bulbo-pontini controlul circulaţiei cerebrale prin modularea TA la valori care sã asigure un gradient presional adecvat în vasele cerebrale (p.a. medie în limitele autoreglãrii circulaţiei cerebrale = mmhg la normotensivi) La nivel local, prin inervaţia vaselor cerebrale de către: fibre nervoase simpatice fibre nervoase parasimpatice fibre nervoase senzitive posibil de fibre ce provin din căi nervoase centrale: mediaţie posibilă: neuropeptide (NPY, VIP, SP şi CGRP), NO, CO, etc.

21 Inervaţia aa. cerebrale de către sistemul nervos autonom (simpatic & parasimpatic) şi de către nervii senzitivi. Endoteliul poate produce oxid nitric (NO), endotelină (ET), EDHF (endothelium derived relaxing factor), care pot influenţa tonusul vascular. Nervi perivasculari ai arterelor cerebrale la om. Ramuri ale arterei comunicante posterioare: imunohistochimie pentru (a) NPY, (b) VIP, (c) SP şi (d) CGRP.

22 Inervaţia simpatică Originea fibrelor simpatice: ggl. cervical superior Distribuţia şi funcţia terminaţiilor nervoase simpatice scade odată cu diminuarea calibrului vascular. Receptorii adrenergici din muşchiul neted al vaselor cerebrale de rezistenţă au o densitate mai mică şi sunt mai puţin sensibili la stimulare, comparativ cu receptorii adrenergici din alte segmente vasculare Determină vasoconstricţie cerebrală, de 10 ori mai puţin intensă decât cea din alte teritorii vasculare Inervaţia PS Originea probabilã a fibrelor PS: ggl sfenopalatin, otic, miniggl carotidei interne Tipuri de neurotransmiţători: - acetilcolinã (Ach), NO - peptidul intestinal vasoactiv (VIP): acţ > la nivelul arterelor de calibru mic, legându-se de receptorii VIP ai celulelor musculare netede - peptidul histidină isoleucină (PHI) - neuropeptidul Y Determină relaxarea vaselor cerebrale

23 Inervaţia senzitivă Originea fibrelor senzitive: ggl. trigeminal Mediatori: substanţa P, CGRP, neurokinina A (NKA), CCK, galanina Determină vasodilataţie cerebrală

24 Migrena Med Clin North Am Jul;85(4): Mechanism of migraine and action of antimigraine medications. Spierings EL. Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Dilation and inflammation of cephalic arteries and intracranial extra cerebral arteries cause the migraine headache. The migraine-associated symptoms result from the activation of the sympathetic nervous system caused by the pain. The migraine aura is caused by the neurophysiological phenomenon of spreading excitation/depression. The various mechanisms are tied together in the so-called "parallel theory" of the pathogenesis of the migraine attack. The abortive antimigraine medications act by constricting the dilated arteries through stimulation of the serotonin 1B receptor. The preventive antimigraine medications act by increasing the tone of the extacranial arteries, inhibiting the mechanism of neurogenic inflammation, or inhibiting pain transmission within the central nervous system. Migraine - a key element is blood flow changes in the brain - blood vessels that overreact to various triggers. the nervous system responds to a trigger such as stress by causing a spasm of the nerve-rich arteries at the base of the brain. The spasm constricts several arteries supplying blood to the brain, including the scalp artery and the carotid or neck arteries. As these arteries constrict, the flow of blood to the brain is reduced. At the same time, blood-clotting particles called platelets clump together-a process which is believed to release the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin acts as a powerful constrictor of arteries, further reducing the blood supply to the brain. Reduced blood flow decreases the brain's supply of oxygen. Neurological symptoms signaling a headache (distorted vision or speech) may then result. Reacting to the reduced oxygen supply, certain arteries within the brain open wider to meet the brain's energy needs. This widening or dilation spreads, finally affecting the neck and scalp arteries. The dilation of these arteries triggers the release of pain-producing substances called prostaglandins from various tissues and blood cells. Chemicals which cause inflammation and swelling, and substances which increase sensitivity to pain, are also released. The circulation of these chemicals and the dilation of the scalp arteries stimulate the pain-sensitive nociceptors. Neuroimaging techniques seem to show that migraine is primarily a disorder of the brain (neurological), not of the blood vessels (vascular). A spreading depolarization (electrical change) may begin 24 hrs before the attack, with onset of the headache occurring at about the time of maximum brain coverage.

25 Inervaţia prin fibre de origine corticală Origine în neuronii corticali bipolari, ale căror prelungiri se distribuie arterelor piale Mediatori: VIP Rol: corelarea DSC local cu metabolismul neuronal (vasodilataţie în condiţiile creşterii metabolismului neuronal) REGLAREA MIOGENĂ A CIRCULAŢIEI CEREBRALE Independent de prezenţa endoteliului, vasele sanguine cerebrale sunt miogenic active Parametru = tensiunea peretelui vascular Finalitate = menţinerea constantã a fluxului sanguin în timpul variaţiilor presiunii de perfuzie cerebralã Vasele cerebrale de rezistenţă se dilată cu scăderea p.a. şi se contracta când aceasta creşte Răspunsul vascular activ tinde să menţină în limite normale tensiunea din peretele arterial

26 CONTROLUL METABOLIC AL CIRCULAŢIEI CEREBRALE Cuplarea metabolismului cu fluxul sanguin cerebral: -creşterea conc interstiţiale a H +, CO 2, K + şi a adenozinei -scăderea PaO 2 sau a concentraţiei de Ca 2+ produc o relaxare a muşchiului neted vascular, cu scăderea rezistenţei vasculare cerebrale şi creşterea perfuziei sanguine CĂI DE COMUNICARE ÎNTRE SNC ŞI CIRCULAŢIA SISTEMICĂ capilar cerebral: barieră hematoencefalică (BHE) capilar coroidian: barieră hematolichidiană (BHL) SÂNGE ARTERIAL CEREBRAL ŞI SPINAL LCR ependim INTERSTIŢIU CEREBRAL capilar sanguin din organele circumventriculare (absenţa BHE, transport neuropeptide) COMPARTIMENT INTRACELULAR AL CREIERULUI: neuroni neuroglie

27 CAPILARELE CEREBRALE formează oreţea anastomotică 3D distanţa intercapilară variază cu cererea locală de oxigen, funcţie de numărul de neuroni şi de densitatea sinaptică de 3x mai > în cortexul cerebral decât în substanţa albă sunt sediul barierei hematoencefalice BARIERA HEMATOENCEFALICĂ (BHE) ISTORIC 1885: Paul Ehrlich inj. i.v. a coloranţilor vitali marchează toate organele, nu şi creierul 1901: Edwin Goldmann adm. albastru trypan direct în LCR colorarea exclusivă a creierului şi a măduvei spinării BHE şi BHL limitează bidirecţional transportul compuşilor polari 1950: ME dezvăluie ultrastructura microvascularizaţiei cerebrale şi a plexurilor coroide.

28 CE ESTE BHE? Endoteliul capilarului cerebral Interfaţă între ţesutul nervos şi sânge Barieră selectivă, bidirecţională integritatea BHE este esenţială pentru menţinerea homeostaziei SNC ALTE CAPILARE CEREBRALE, ÎN AFARA BHE Bariera hemato-lichidiană (BHL), mai permisivă comparativ cu BHE: - comunicare sânge - lichid cefalorahidian (LCR) - mediu intracerebral - la nivelul capilarului plexurilor coroide, sediul şi locul de formare a 70% din LCR. Capilare fenestrate: organe circumventriculare (organ subfornical, organul vascular al laminei terminale, eminenţa mediană, lobul posterior al pituitarei, glanda pineală, organul subcomisural, area postrema) - importanţă funcţională: semnalizare bidirecţională SNC circulaţie sistemică

29 CAPILARUL CEREBRAL AL BHE - Grosimea peretelui capilar: 0,3 µm - Procesele astrocitare acoperă 99% din membrana bazală. Particularităţi BHE 1. absenţa FENESTRAŢIILOR 2. COMPLEXE JONCŢIONALE: Joncţiuni strânse (zonula occludens) & Joncţiuni aderente 3. număr scăzut de VEZICULE DE PINOCITOZĂ 4. prezenţa SISTEMELOR DE TRANSPORT specializate, saturabile, stereospecifice (ex. transportul selectiv al D hexozelor şi L- aminoacizilor) 5. distribuţie asimetrică a structurilor proteice membranare şi a sistemelor de transport ionic POLARIZAREA MEMBRANEI celulelor endoteliale 6. număr crescut de MITOCONDRII 7. nivel crescut al enzimelor intracelulare care formează o BARIERĂ ENZIMATICĂ: γ-glutamil transpeptidaza, decarboxilaza L-aminoacizilor aromatici, pseudocolinesteraza metab subst. plasmatice şi cerebrale 8. prezenţa PERICITELOR, celule perivasculare cu rol fagocitic

30 COMPLEXELE JONCŢIONALE ALE BHE Tipuri: 1. Ocluzive, strânse proteine asociate: ZO-1, ZO-2, cingulin, 7H6 antigen, occludina (prot. reglatoare a cărei prezenţă creşte rezist. el. a joncţiunii) 2. Adherens cadherine (E,P,N) catenine α, β, γ (intracitoplasmatic) Roluri: creşte rezistenţa electrică transendotelială (1.500 ohmxcm 2 ) permeabilitate scăzută la compuşii ionici menţine pasajul paracelular al moleculelor de o parte şi de alta a BHE la un nivel extrem de redus BARIERA HEMATOLICHIDIANĂ (BHL) LCR Plexurile coroide sunt componenta principală a BHL şi principala cale de acces a substanţelor hidrofile din sânge spre creier. format: 70% la nivelul plexurilor coroide 30% transependimar & prin spaţiile Virchow-Robin 0,3-0,4 ml/min ( ml/zi) volum total: 140 ml roluri principale: menţinerea homeostaziei cerebrale asigură amortizarea mecanică transportul neurohormonilor din LCR în n sânge

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