OSTEOPENIA IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

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1 GENERAL PAPERS 5 OSTEOPENIA IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE Georgiana Russu 1, Tania Rusu 2, Ileana Ioniuc 2, Stela Gotia 2 1 Pediatric Clinic I, Emergency Clinical Hospital for Children, Iasi 2 Pediatric Clinic II, Gr. T. Popa University Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi ABSTRACT Osteopenia, term of child pathologies, is a decrease in bone mass relative to chronological age, being an intermediate state between normal bone mass and osteoporosis. It has multiples etiological factors, comprising a heterogen group of diseases of the connective tissue with genetic determinism and osteopenia gained in various pathological conditions affecting bone homeostasis. Early diagnosis is determined by measuring bone density through non invasive imaging methods, the most common being dual-energy x-ray absorbtiometry (DEXA) and quantitative ultrasonography. Treatment in children customize through the need to adapt the intake of calcium and vitamin D to physiological growth needs and to requirements of some diseases. Specifi c drug treatment with nitrogen bisphosphonates was introduced to the children but is not yet well acted. Attention to be given to this bone pathologies in children and adolescents is warranted of its prognostic value for the rest of his life, to the peak bone mass of years of age. Keywords: osteopenia, children, diagnosis, treatment Genetic (present in 80% of cases), endocrine, autocrine and nutritional factors ensure the constant renewal of bone (resorption and replacement). The process is very active during fetal and postnatal growth, until years; at the age of 25 years peak bone mass is obtained, necessary to bone health and long-term prognosis (1). Modelling of bone in children and in adults is performed by the basic multicellular unit (UMB), a temporary structure that last for 6-9 months. This is a unique structure, consisting of a team which comprises: osteoclasts (two weeks life), osteocytes, osteoblasts (three months life), the central capillary, nervous fibres, connective tissue. UMB is measured by the amount of bone replaced. UMB activators factors (PTH, IgF-I, IL-1, IL-6, TNFα, PGE, NO, calcitriol) and the estrogenic inhibitory factors influence the lifetime of UMB (6-9 months). A unit UMB is measured by the amount of bone replaced, has a displacement speed of 25 micrometers/day, redesigning the same site in 2-5 years. 10% of the turnover of the entire skeleton takes place in 12 months (2-4). Bone turnover remains open to the further investigations; have recently been found as participant factors involved in osteoclast differentiation and proliferation the role of one receptor activator of nuclear factor kb (RANK) and its ligand (RANKL) and the osteoprotegerin (OPG) as an inhibitor of this process. Gene mutations, proinflammatory cytokines and glucocorticoid excess can increase system RANK/RANKL (5). Osteopenia is a decrease in bone mass relative to chronological age shown histological by deficiency of bone tissue and radiological by decreased bone density. It is an intermediate state between normal bone mass and osteoporosis and is common in children and adolescents. Bone density is lower than the average healthy adult with 1-2 SD; associate clinically history of fractures. In osteoporosis, the strong negative balance of the remodelling process reduces bone density with more than 2 SD and increase the risk of fractures. A single leg long bone fracture, two upper limb fractures or one vertebral fracture by compaction have clinical significance. Peak bone mass at the Corresponding author: Ileana Ioniuc, Gr. T. Popa University Medicine and Paharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, Iasi ileanaioniuc@yahoo.com REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN

2 380 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN 2014 end of adolescence is the primary determinant of bone health in adults (6). ETIOLOGY AND CLINICAL FEATURES Osteopenia in a children and adolescents have multiples etiological factors. Primary forms are either the result of the primary disease of the connective tissue affecting bone and/or other supporting tissues, or is known as juvenile idiopathic osteoporosis. Gene mutations, most known, causes a heterogeneous group of connective tissue diseases that affect the quality and quantity of collagen type I: osteogenesis imperfecta, Cole-Carpenter dysplasia, Sigleton-Merton dysplasia, osteopenia with mandibles lesions, osteoporotic pseudogliomal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Marfan syndrome, Bruck syndrome, homocystinuria, geoderma osteodysplasticum, Menkes syndrome (3,6). Osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease) has an incidence of 1/10000 and is characterized by increased bone fragility with recurrent minimal trauma fractures. Recent studies have identified the involvement of multiple genetic loci, including those of VNT ligands, of signalling molecules between different cellular compartments, including these between the hematopoietic compartments and the osteocytic lines (VNT1 effectors). VNT signals are essential for normal skeletal development and bone homeostasis; VNT 1 mutation was correlated with the severe form of osteogenesis imperfecta (prenatal onset osteoporosis) (Glass 2005 cited by 7). Juvenile idiopathic osteoporosis is a rare discovery, casual, in children with bone pain and fractures (long bones, spine), rarely with kyphosis or scoliosis. The diagnosis requires exclusion of secondary osteopenia. The disease affects both sexes, often starts 2-3 years before puberty with insidious pain in the back and lower limbs, gait disorders, fractures near the joints that support the weight. Often family history is positive for bone diseases. Histological morphometry evidences the decrease of the bone turnover and of trabecular mineralization. There is no characteristic biochemical picture. Quantitative computerized tomography shows a reduced lumbar trabecular and femoral cortical bone mineral density (8). Pathogenesis kept unknown; was involved the polymorphism low-density lipoprotein gene receptor co related toprotein 5, which lowers the performance of osteoblast; is associated the vitamin D deficiency and the hyperparathyroidism (9). Treatment with bisphosphonates is under study. Osteopenia/acquired osteoporosis is the result of disturbance factors involved in bone homeostasis, deficiency or excess, or the intervention of different drugs, that affect the bone remodelling process. Secondary osteopenia frequency is more frequent than reported in practice. Can accompany: Chronic infl ammatory diseases: SLE, juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), DM, inflammatory bowel disease, nephrotic syndrome. Reduced physical activity: traumatic, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy. Endocrine disorders: hypogonadism (gonadal digenesis), hypo/hyperthyroidism, Cushing s syndrome, GH deficiency, delayed puberty. Catabolic syndromes/poor nutrition malabsorption: malignancies (ALL, lymphoma), vitamin D deficiency, cystic fibrosis, mental illness (anorexia nervosa, bulimia), chronic malabsorption, HIV, intense physical activity in women (athletes). Drugs: glucocorticoids (chronic therapy), anticonvulsants, heparin, dose methotrexate in oncologic doses (10). The frequency of secondary osteopenia is not negligible. Applying ultrasound (sometimes verified by DEXA and dosing 25-OHD) in children with chronic diseases diagnosed in IV and II Pediatric Clinic Emergency Hospital for Children Sf. Maria in a period of six years revealed the presence of osteopenia with following percentage frequency: AJI 48.57% (105 cases), chronic hepatitis 38.5% (82 cases), persistent asthma 35% (182 cases), intestinal malabsorption 32.2% (118 cases), impairment chronic renal 75% (346 cases). The frequency of secondary osteopenia mentioned is close to other reports (11). Pathogenesis of osteopenia in chronic diseases is very complex, intertwining the effects of proinflammatory cytokines, the hormonal disturbances involved in bone metabolism, with the nutritional deficits by low input or severe organic suffering (hepatic, renal, malabsorption). UMB failure is compounded by drug treatments (12,13,14). Multitude of disease states that requires repeated treatment with corticosteroids and the need for frequent long course makes this product to be a partner in the production of pathogenic feared osteopenia in young people. The effects of glucocorticoids in the cell nucleus level is reflected in the increase of RANKL and OPG decrease, which extends the life of osteoclasts, osteoblasts and decreases the differentiation rhythm of osteoblasts inducing the apoptosis, increases the osteocytes apoptosis with a decrease resistance and bone mass (15).

3 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN Indirect effects of glucocorticoids on bone are: inhibition of calcium uptake in the intestine and renal tubules causing hyperparathyroidism, transrepression of osteocalcin and collagen 1 (bone matrix proteins) thus lowering mineralization and induces bone fragility, cortisone myopathy (increased risk of fracture). Glucocorticoid-induced osteopenia begins after the first month of treatment, evolving rapidly in the first year (3.5% loss), and slow after (0.5-1% per year). After 6 months of treatment, 30% of patients present the trabecular bone osteopenia. Aggravating factors are: the evolution of the underlying disease, immobilization, obesity, smoking. Prevention with bisphosphonates in child is recommended in more than 3 courses of systemic corticosteroids per year. 12 months of treatment with bisphosphonates reduces the risk of fractures (15,16). Osteopenia of preterm newborn is pathogenetic particular through a combination of inadequate reserves, loss of essential minerals by organic immaturity and insufficient intake (difficult) to replace losses and to restore reserves. Mineral content and bone density is positively correlated with gestational age. On the other hand preterm and term infants with low weight could be affected by placental pathology that limited the transfer of phosphate (physiological placenta converts vitamin D to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol). Disruption in mineral metabolism is aggravated by renal losses, by the effects of parenteral nutrition combined with copper deficiency and the impact of treatment with steroids and diuretics. In time, the preterm baby, may be affected by one metabolic bone disease (rickets of prematurity), characterized by abnormal bone modelling and reduced linear growth (17). Breastfeeding by the increased content of growth factor and hormones, as well as monitoring the intake of mineral and vitamin D, contribute to the gradual normalization of bone between 2 and 16 years. THE DIAGNOSIS OF OSTEOPENIA/OSTEOPOROSIS Early diagnosis of osteopenia is determined by measuring the bone density safest method measure the bone density in gr./cm 2 and, in children, determine the Z score, representing the number of SD from the mean of a healthy child of the same age, sex and ethnicity. Different types of methods to assess bone mineral density are non-invasive dual-energy X-ray absorbtiometry (DEXA), Quantitative computed tomography (QCT), Qualitative ultrasound (QUS), single photon absorbtiometry (SPA), dual photon absorbtiometry (DPA), digital X-ray radiogrammetry (DXR), single energy X-ray absorbtiometry (SEXA). Measurements apply to vertebrae of the lumbar spine, hip, fist; high tissue thickness that covers the bones can generate errors. Simple plain bone X-ray detected the osteopenia only after 20-40% bone loss. Quantitative computer tomography (CTQ), progressively improved method, is a technique based on a three-dimensional body scanning standard, separately measuring cortical bone mineral density and the trabecular one; the amount expresses the average density of the peripheral area. In children with idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis, where the histological morphometry revealed decreased trabecular bone turnover and the trabecular mineralization heterogeneity, CTQ detected reduction of bone mineral density of the trabecular bone in both the lumbar spine (important values) and the femoral cortical bone (8). DEXA is considered the gold standard in bone exploration for precision, speed, stable calibration and low dose radiation. SIOC (2007) recommend it in children over 4 years of age and adolescents, applied lumbar and/or the whole body (without cephalic extremity); DEXA exploration introduced the term low bone mineral content for chronological age. Z score results of the difference in bone mineral density of the patient and a normal individual of the same age and sex/ds. Z value is more accurate than the assessment of Tanner stages of puberty. Disadvantages of this technique: the attenuation coefficient of fat is different from that of muscle and gain errors (3% forearm, column 5%, 6% head and femoral neck), the equipment is expensive and requires special authorization (18). Quantitative ultrasound explores peripheral skeleton in areas with minimal amounts of soft tissue, using ultrasound transducers and a computerized system for results processing. SIOC in 2007 stated the fidelity by exploring the calcaneus, patella, tibia, radius, phalanx, stressing that the results are similar to DEXA. Advantages of the method: the absence of irradiation technique, easy to apply, small devices, movable, favourable for population studies (19). The biochemical collagen markers of bone resorbtion with practical value are deoxipiridinolina and the peptides resulted from telopeptides by the action of metaloproteinases on collagen type I. The depxipiridinoline comes from the bone, from the non-helicoidal part of collagen I. The serum value is not influenced by the diet and correlates with DEXA

4 382 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN 2014 results. The carboxiterminal peptide resulted from telopeptides signifies the increase of bone density when the osteoporosis treatment is correct, by the decrease of its serum and urinary titer (10, 11). Biochemical bone turnover exploration comprises determining the biochemical markers of bone synthesis and resorption (non collagen and collagen). From the biochemical markers of bone synthesis has proved the utility of bone alkaline phosphatase value determined with monoclonal antibodies, is a reliable marker for bone formation (monitor treatment). Osteocalcin, noncollagen protein, synthesized by osteoblasts, bone-specific, and dentin, as well as the extension peptides of the procollagen type I, has little practical value. From noncollagen biochemical markers of bone resorption enrolles matinal urinary calcium and acid phosphatase, but with reduced practical value. Bone sialoprotein, phosphorylated protein from bone and holds noncollagen matrix, mobilized by osteoclasts, is a short-term marker of bone resorption in adult and child; serum levels decline rapidly after the introduction of bisphosphonate treatment. Collagen biochemical markers of bone resorption with practical are: deoxypyridinoline and the peptides resulting from telopeptids by the action of metalloproteinases on collagen type I. Deoxyipiridinoline comes almost exclusively from bone, from non-helical portion of type I collagen. Serum value is not influenced by food and correlate with the DEXA results. The carboxyterminal peptide resulted from telopeptids marks increase bone density when osteoporosis treatment is correct, by a decrease in its serum and urine values (10,11). TREATMENT Extension of osteodensitometry and thus increasing the life of chronic diseases with repercussion on bone metabolism, leading to more frequent reporting of skeletal fragility in children and adolescents. Effects of chronic disease and of chronic medicines on bone are different between adult and the growth period; affected skeletal site varies with the biological age and the onset of chronic illness (epiphyseal fusions vary). Thus, the experiences gained in the treatment of osteoporosis in adults cannot be extrapolated to children, requiring further in-depth studies. Prevention of osteopenia in children and adolescents, especially in the age group 12-18, includes physical activity, proper nutrition, fighting the anorexia and obesity, and the administration of the necessary daily calcium and vitamin D. The daily requirement of calcium is adapted to age: 1-3 years 500 mg/day, 4-8 years 800 mg/day, 9-18 years 1,300 mg/day, pregnancy 1,200 mg/day and lactation 1,000 mg mg/day. The average daily requirement of vitamin D is 800-1,000 U/day in preterms and dystrophic children, and in recovery treatment 1,500 U/day. Chronic treatment with glucocorticoids requires an intake of 2,000 U/day. 25 OHD levels should be maintained above 50 nmol/l (20 ng/ml.) (20). Along with adaptation needs of calcium and vitamin D throughout the period of growth, should be identified and corrected any endocrine disorders (thyroid disturbances, hypogonadism), anorexia, obesity etc. In chronic diseases mobilization, physical therapy, individualized nutritional support and supervised correction of bone metabolism (repeated osteodensitometry, 25 OHD determination), reduce the risk of osteopenia (21). The calcitonine was proposed in the osteopenia treatment but the dose in child is not well established; approximately microgrames/day alternative regimen. The intranasal and parenteral administration was associated with adverse effects (nausea, mucosa dryness etc). Future biological therapies are being used experimentally: denosumabe, catepsine L inhibitors, specific antiscleotine antibodies. Specific drug treatment of osteopenia/osteoporosis comprising administering nitrogen bisphosphonates: pamidronate, neridronat, olpadronate, alendronate, ibadronat, risedronate, zoledronate. The mechanism of action is modification of the connected to the cell membrane protein, involved in osteoclastic resorption, while decreasing osteoclastogenesis and osteoclast survival (22). Bisphosphonate treatment in children is not well stated. We have accumulated experience in osteogenesis imperfecta, juvenile idiopathic osteoporosis, Gaucher disease, fibrous dysplasia, mitochondrial myopathy, progressive osificans fibroplasias, anorexia nervosa in adolescents and in osteopenia induced by prolonged corticosteroid (8). The optimal duration of bisphosphonate therapy in children, in various chronic diseases, is not well established; osteogenesis imperfecta correction in bone mass begins after 2-4 years of treatment. Side effects are rare, reactions may be transient (1-3 days), consisting of fever, malaise, nausea, di-

5 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN arrhea, muscle and bone pain. It have been reported some severe complications installed over time, as uveitis, thrombocytopenia, oral and esophageal ulcers. Bisphosphonates are deposited in bone and released in years. Attention is needed in treat the teenagers, as bisphosphonates can cross the placenta and affect fetal development (23). Calcitonin has been proposed to treat osteopenia but recommended dose in children is not well established; is indicated micrograms/day, alternative regime. Intranasal administration and injection was accompanied by adverse effects (flushing, nausea, dry mucous membranes, etc.). In experimental studies are future biologic therapies: denosumab, cathepsin K inhibitors, and specific antiscleotine antibodies. CONCLUSIONS The term osteopenia, which defines the intermediate condition between the normal and osteoporotic bone, is imposed by its frequency, its evolution and the potential repercussions on the adult bone pathology. The most common is secondary osteopenia as a common manifestation of subgroups of disease with different pathogenesis. Often, in childhood, is the result of medical treatments, especially corticosteroids administration. Bone density studies is a important marker of the evolution of bone turnover in many diseases, but also it can be use as a screening method to detect osteopenia in adolescents. Peak bone mass that is given up to years old is predictive for bone health throughout life. Treatment is complex and must be adapted to causes of osteopenia. Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake had a positive effect in most cases. In severe forms of primary or secondary osteopenia, bisphosphonate treatment is recommended oriented by clinical experiences. REFERENCES 1. Ward L.M., Glorieux F. The spectrum of pediatric osteoporosis. In: Glorieux F.H. editor. Pediatric Bone Biology et Diseases. San Diego Academic Press 2003: Manolagas S.C. Birt hand Death of Bone Cells: Basic Regulatory Mechanisms and Implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. End. Rev (2), Căruntu I.D. Ţesutul osos-elements of cellular and molecular biology, microscopic morphology and histofiziologie. In Găleşanu C. editor. Statural growth and weight disorders. Ed. Gr.T. Popa Iasi University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iaşi Parfitt A. Targeted and nontargeted bone remodeling: relationship to basic multicellular unit origination and progression. Bone: 30 (1), Vega D., Maalouf N.M., Sakhaeee K. Clinical Review: the role of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (RANK) ligand RANK/ osteoprotegerin, Clinical Implication. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2007, 92: Gordon C.M., Baim S., Bianchi M. et al. Special report on the 2007 Pediatric Position Development Conference of the International Society of Clinical Densitometry. South Med. J. 2008, 101: Laine Ch. M. Kin Sang Joeng, Campeau T. et al. WNT 1 mutations in early-onset osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta. N.Engl.J. 2013, 368: Bachetta J., Wesseling-Perry K., Gilsan V. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis et all: a cross-sectional single-center experience with bone histimorphometry and Quantitative computed tomography. Pediatric Rheumatology : Laine Ch.M., Koltin D. Susic M. et al. Primary osteoporosis without features of OI in children and adolescents: Clinical Characteristics genetic land. Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 2012, 158A: Uziel Y., Zifman E., Hashkes Ph. Osteoporosis in children: pediatric and pediatric rheumatology perspective to review. Pediatric Rheumatology : Tania-Elena Rusu. Clinical and laboratory study of osteopenia in children. Science Thesis in Holstead J.D., Kong D.D., Penninger J.M. Role of RANKL and RANK in bone loss in arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2002, 61: Manolagas S.C., Weinstein R.S., Bellido T., Bodenner D.L. Opposite effects of estrogen on the life span of osteoblasts/osteocytes vs. osteoclasts in vivo and in vitro: an explanation of formation and resorbtion Between the imbalance in estrogen defficiency. L. Bone Miner. Res. 1999: 14: S Muir, J.M., Hirsh J., Weitz J.I. et al. A histomorphometric comparison of the effects of heparin and low molecular weight heparin on cancellous bone in rats. Blood : Den Uyl D., Bultink I.E.M. and Lems W.F. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in Advances. Current Reumatology Report 2011, vol.13,3: Ventura A., Brunetti G., Colucci S. et al. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in children with 21-hydroxyl deficiency. Hindawi Publishing Corporation Bio Med. Research International 2013, article ID pages. 17. Harrison C.M., Gilson A.T. Osteopenia in preterm Infants. Neonatal Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal : F272-F Bishop N., Braillon P., Burnham J. et al. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in children and adolescents with Assesment Diseases That Affect the skeleton: the 2007 ISCD pediatric official positions. J. Clin. Densitom. 2008, 11: 29-42

6 384 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN C. Hartman R. Shamir, Eshach-Adiv O. et al. Assesment of Osteoporosis by Quantitative Ultrasound vs. dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in children with chronic rheumatic Diseases. J. Reumatol. 2004, 31: Misra M., Pacaud D., Petryk A. Vitamin D defi ciency et al. In children and STI management: review of current knowledge and recomandations. Pediatrics : K.K. Miller, Lee E.E., Lawson E.A. et al. Determinants of skeletal loss and recovery in anorexia nervosa. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 91: Bachrach L.K., Ward L.M. Clinical review: biphosphonate use in childhood osteoporosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol Metab. 2009, 94: Patlas N., Golomb G., Yaffe P. et al. Transdplacental effects on fetal skeletal ossification of biphosphonates and mineralisation in rats. Teratology : 68-73

7 REFERATE GENERALE 5 OSTEOPENIA ÎN COPILĂRIE ŞI ADOLESCENŢĂ Georgiana Russu 1, Tania Rusu 2, Ileana Ioniuc 2, Stela Goţia 2 1 Clinica I Pediatrie, Spitalul clinic de urgenţe pentru copii Sf. Maria, Iaşi 2 Clinica II Pediatrie, Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iaşi REZUMAT Osteopenia, termen aparţinând patologiei copilului, este o scădere a masei osoase în raport cu vârsta cronologică, reprezentând o stare intermediară între normal şi osteoporoză. Este o afecţiune plurietiologică, cu prinzând un grup heterogen de boli ale ţesutului conjunctiv cu determinism genetic, dar şi osteopenia dobândită în diverse stări patologice care afectează homeostazia osoasă. Diagnosticul precoce se stabileşte prin măsurarea densităţii osoase prin metode imagistice noninvazive, cele mai utilizate fi ind dual-energy x-ray absorbtiometry (DEXA) şi ultrasonografi a cantitativă. Tratamentul la copil se particularizează prin necesitatea adaptării aportului de calciu şi vitamina D atât la nevoile fiziologice ale creşterii, cât şi la cerinţele unei patologii. Tratamentul medicamentos specifi c cu bifosfonaţi ni trogenici a fost introdus la copii, dar nu este încă bine statuat. Atenţia care trebuie acordată acestei patologii osoase la copil şi adolescent este justificată de valoarea prognostică pentru tot restul vieţii a masei osoase de vârf a vârstei ani. Cuvinte cheie: osteopenie, copil, diagnostic, tratament Factori genetici (prezenţi la 80% cazuri), endocrini, autocrini şi nutriţionali, asigură o permanentă reînnoire a osului (resorbţie şi înlocuire). Procesul este foarte activ în perioada de creştere fetală şi postnatală până la ani; până la vârsta de 25 ani se obţine masa osoasă de vârf, determinantă a prognosticului sănătăţii osoase pe termen lung (1). Modelarea osului la copil şi la adult este efectuată de unitatea multicelulară de bază (UMB), structură temporară cu durata de viaţă de 6-9 luni. Este o structură unică formată dintr-o echipă care cuprinde: osteoclaste (durata de viaţă 2 săptămâni), osteocite, osteoblaste (durata de viaţă 3 luni), capilar central, fibre nervoase, ţesut conjunctiv asociat. UMB se măsoară prin volumul de os înlocuit. Factorii activatori ai UMB (PTH, IgFI, IL1, IL6, TNFalfa, PGE, NO, calcitriol) şi factorii inhibitori estrogeni influenţează durata de viaţă a UMB (6-9 luni). O unitate UMB se măsoară prin volumul de os înlocuit, are o viteză de deplasare de 25 micrometri/zi, remodelând acelaşi situs în 2-5 ani. 10% din turnover-ul întregului schelet se desfăşoară în 12 luni (2-4). Turnover-ul osos rămâne deschis cercetărilor; de dată recentă au fost descoperiţi ca factori participanţi în diferenţierea şi proliferarea osteo cla s- telor un activator al receptorului factorului nuclear kb (RANK), ligandul său (RANKL) şi osteopro tegerina (OPG) ca inhibitor al acestui proces. Mutaţii genice, citokinele proinflamatorii şi excesul de gluco corticoizi pot amplifica sistemul RANK/ RANKL (5). Osteopenia (oston = os; penie = lipsă, sărăcie) este o scădere a masei osoase în raport cu vârsta cronologică, răsfrângându-se histologic prin deficit de ţesut osos şi radiologic prin diminuarea densităţii osoase. Este o stare intermediară a masei osoase situată între normal şi osteoporoză, frecventă la copii şi adolescenţi. Densitatea osoasă este mai mică cu 1-2 DS decât valoarea medie a adultului sănătos; clinic asociază istoric de fracturi. În osteoporoză (poros = por) balanţa puternic negativă a procesului de remodelare reduce densitatea osoasă peste 2 DS şi creşte riscul de fracturi. Clinic, au semnificaţie o singură fractură de os lung la membrul inferior, două fracturi la membrul Adresa de corespondenţă: Ileana Ioniuc, Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr.T. Popa, Str. Universităţii nr. 16, Iaşi ileanaioniuc@yahoo.com REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN

8 448 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN 2014 superior sau o fractură vertebrală prin tasare. Masa osoasă de vârf la sfârşitul adolescenţei este determi nantul principal al sănătăţii osului la adult (6). ELEMENTE DE ETIOPATOGENIE ŞI CLINICĂ Osteopenia copiilor şi adolescenţilor este o afecţiune plurietiologică. Formele primare sunt fie consecinţa unor boli primare ale ţesutului conjunctiv afectând osul şi/sau alte ţesuturi de susţinere, fie cunoscută ca osteoporoză juvenilă idiopatică. Mutaţii genice, majoritatea cunoscute, determină un grup heterogen de boli ale ţesutului conjunctiv în care este afectată calitatea şi cantitatea colagenului tip I: osteogenesis imperfecta, displazia Cole- Carpenter, displazia Sigleton-Merton, osteopenia cu leziuni ale mandibulei, displazia osteoporotică pseudogliomală, sindromul Ehlers-Danlos, sindromul Marfan, sindromul Bruck, homocistinuria, geoderma osteodysplasticum, sindromul Menkes (3,6). Osteogenesis imperfecta (boala oaselor de sticlă) are o incidenţă de 1/ şi se caracterizează prin fragilitate osoasă crescută, cauză de fracturi recurente la traumatisme minime. Studii recente au identificat implicarea a multipli loci genetici in clusiv ai liganzilor VNT, molecule semnalizatoare între diferite compartimente celulare, inclusiv între compartimentul hematopoetic şi liniile osteocitare (efector VNT 1). Semnalele VNT sunt esenţiale pentru dezvoltarea şi homeostazia scheletului normal; mutaţia VNT 1 a fost corelată cu forma severă a osteogenesis imperfecta (osteoporoză cu debut pre natal) (Glass 2005 citat de 7). Osteoporoza juvenilă idiopatică este o descoperire rară, întâmplătoare, la copilul cu dureri osoase şi fracturi (os lung, vertebrale), rar cu cifoză sau scolioză). Precizarea diagnosticului impune excluderea osteopeniilor secundare. Boala afectează ambele sexe, debutează frecvent cu 2-3 ani înainte de pubertate cu dureri insidioase ale spatelui şi membrelor inferioare, tulburări de mers, fracturi lângă articulaţiile care susţin greutatea corpului. Frecvent istoricul familial este pozitiv pentru boli osoase. Histomorfometria evidenţiază scăderea turnover-ului şi a mineralizării osului trabecular. Nu a fost perceput un tablou biochimic caracteristic. Tomografia computerizată cantitativă evidenţiază o densitate minerală redusă a osului trabecular lombar şi cortical femural (8). Patogenia păstrează necunos cute; a fost implicat polimorfismul genei receptorului de joasă densitate a lipoproteinei corelată cu proteina 5, ceea ce duce la scăderea performanţelor osteoblas tului; se asociază deficitul vitaminei D şi hiperparatiroidismul (9). Tratamentul cu bifosfonaţi este în studiu. Osteopenia/osteoporoza dobândită la copil este rezultatul perturbării factorilor implicaţi în homeostazia osului prin deficit sau exces, sau a in tervenţiei diferitelor medicamente, dezechilibrându-se procesul de remodelare a osului. Frecvenţa osteopeniei secundare este mai mare decât se raportează în practică. Poate însoţi: boli infl amatorii cronice: LES, artrită juvenilă idiopatică (AJI), DM, boli inflamatorii intestinale, sindrom nefrotic. imobilizări sau activitate fi zică redusă: posttraumatic, paralizii cerebrale, distrofie musculară. boli endocrine: hipogonadism (disgenezie gonadală), hipo/hipertiroidism, sindrom Cushing, deficit STH, pubertate întârziată. stări catabolice/nutriţie inadecvată, malabsorb ţie: malignităţi (LAL, limfom), deficit de vitamina D, fibroza chistică, boli psihiatrice (anorexia nervoasă, bulimia), malabsorbţii cronice, HIV, activitate fizică intensă la femei (atlete). medicamente: glucocorticoizi (terapii cronice), anticonvulsivante, heparina, metotrexat în doze oncologice (10). Frecvenţa osteopeniei secundare nu este ne glijabilă. Aplicarea ultrasonografiei (uneori verificată prin DEXA şi dozarea 25-OHD) la copii cu boli cronice diagnosticaţi în Clinica II Pediatrie şi Clinica IV Pediatrie Spitalul Clinic de Urgenţe pentru Copii Sf. Maria din Iaşi într-o perioadă de 6 ani a evidenţiat prezenţa osteopeniei cu următoarea frecvenţă procentuală: AJI 48,57% (105 cazuri), he patite cronice 38,5% (82 cazuri), astm bronşic persistent 35% (182 cazuri), malabsorbţii intestinale 32,2% (118 cazuri), insuficienţă renală cronică 75% (346 cazuri). Frecvenţa osteopeniilor secundare menţionată este apropiată altor raportări (11). În bolile cronice, patogenia osteopeniei este foarte complexă, împletindu-se efectele citokinelor proinflamatorii, perturbările releelor hormonale implicate în metabolismul osos cu deficitele nutri ţionale prin aport scăzut sau suferinţe organice severe (hepatice, renale, malabsorbţii). Disfuncţionalitatea UMB este agravată de tratamente medicamentoase (12-14). Multitudinea de stări patologice în care se recomandă tratament repetat cu glucocorticoizi la copii şi adolescenţi, ca şi necesitatea frecventă de cure lungi, face ca acest medicament să fie un partener patogenetic de temut în producerea osteopeniei la tineri. Efectele glucocorticoizilor la nivel de nucleu celular se reflectă prin creşterea RANKL şi scăderea OPG, ceea ce prelungeşte durata de viaţă a osteoclastelor, scade ritmul diferenţierii osteoblastelor şi induce apoptoza lor, creşte apoptoza osteocitelor, rezultând scăderea rezistenţei şi a masei

9 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN osului (15). Efectele indirecte ale glucocorticoizilor asupra osului constau în: inhibiţia reabsorbţiei calciului din intestin şi tubii renali generând hiperparatiroidism, transrepresia osteocalcinei şi cola genului 1 (proteine din matricea osoasă), scăzând astfel mineralizarea şi inducând fragilitatea osului, miopatia cortizonică (creşte riscul de fracturi). Osteopenia indusă de glucocorticoizi debutează după prima lună de tratament, evoluează rapid în primul an (3-5% pierderi), apoi lent (0,5-1% pe an). După 6 luni de tratament, 30% dintre bolnavi prezintă osteopenie a osului trabecular. Factorii agravanţi sunt: evoluţia bolii de bază, imobilizare, obezitate, fumat. Profilaxia cu bifosfonaţi la copil se aplică la mai mult de 3 cure de corticoterapie sistemică pe an. În 12 luni de tratament cu bifosfonaţi scade ris cul de fracturi (15,16). Osteopenia nou-născutului prematur se particularizează patogenetic printr-o combinaţie între rezervele inadecvate, pierderi de minerale esenţiale prin imaturităţi organice şi aport insuficient (dificil) pentru a înlocui pierderile şi a restaura rezervele. Conţinutul mineral şi densitatea osoasă se corelează pozitiv cu vârsta gestaţională. Pe de altă parte, prematurii, cât şi născuţii la termen cu greutate mică au putut fi afectaţi de o patologie placentară care a li mitat transferul de fosfat (fiziologic placenta converteşte vitamina D în 1,25-dihidroxicole cal ciferol. Perturbarea metabolismului mineral se agra vează prin pierderi renale, prin efectele nutriţiei pa renterale cumulate cu deficit de cupru şi prin im pactul tratamentelor cu steroizi şi diuretice. În evo luţie, prematurul poate fi afectat de o boală meta bolică osoasă (rahitismul prematurităţii) caracterizată prin modelarea anormală a osului şi creşterea lineară redusă (17). Alimentaţia naturală prin con ţinutul crescut în factor de creştere şi hormoni, ca şi monitorizarea aportului de minerale şi vitamina D, con tribuie la normalizarea treptată a osului între 2 şi 16 ani. DIAGNOSTICUL OSTEOPENIEI / OSTEOPOROZEI Diagnosticul precoce al osteopeniei este stabilit prin măsurarea densităţii osoase ca metoda cea mai sigură. Se măsoară densitatea osoasă în g/cm 2 şi, la copii, se determină scorul Z care reprezintă numărul de DS de la valorile medii ale unui copil sănătos de aceeaşi vârstă, sex şi etnie. Diferitele tipuri de metode de determinare a densităţii minerale osoase sunt non-invazive: dual-energy X-ray absorbtiometry (DEXA), quantitative computed tomography (QCT), qualitative ultrasound (QUS), single photon absorbtiometry (SPA), dual photon absorbtiometry (DPA), digital X-ray radiogrammetry (DXR), single energy X-ray absorbtiometry (SEXA). Măsurătorile se aplică la vertebrele coloanei lombare, şold, pumn; grosimea ţesuturilor care acoperă osul cercetat poate genera erori. Simpla radiografie a osului depistează osteopenia numai după pierderi osoase de 20-40%. Computer-tomografi a cantitativă (CTQ), metodă îmbunătăţită progresiv, este o tehnică tridimensională bazată pe o scanare standard a corpului, mă surându-se separat densitatea minerală a osului cortical şi trabecular; suma exprimă densitatea medie a ariei periferice. La copiii cu osteoporoză ju venilă idiopatică la care histomorfometria a evidenţiat scăderea turnover-ului osului trabecular şi heteroge nitatea parametrilor mineralizării trabeculare, CTQ a depistat reducerea densităţii minerale osoase atât în osul trabecular al vertebrelor lombare (valori semnificative), cât şi în osul cortical femural (8). DEXA este considerată gold standard în explorarea osoasă pentru precizie, rapiditate, calibrări stabile şi doze mici de radiaţii. SIOC (2007) recomandă la copiii peste vârsta de 4 ani şi la adolescenţi DEXA aplicată lombar şi/sau corpul întreg (fără extremitatea cefalică); a introdus sintagma conţinut mineral osos scăzut pentru vârsta cronologică. Scorul Z rezultă din diferenţa densităţii minerale osoase a bolnavului şi cea a unui individ normal de aceeaşi vârstă şi sex/ds. Valoarea Z este mai precisă decât stadiile Tanner în evaluarea pubertăţii. Dezavantajele acestei tehnici: coeficientul de atenuare al ţesutului gras este diferit de cel al muşchilor şi se obţin erori (3% antebraţ, 5% coloană, 6% cap şi col femural), echipamentele sunt scumpe şi necesită autorizaţii speciale (18). Ultrasonografi a cantitativă explorează scheletul periferic în zone cu cantitate minimă de ţesut moale, utilizează traductori ecografici şi un sistem computerizat de prelucrare a rezultatelor. SIOC în 2007 a precizat fidelitatea explorării pe calcaneu, rotulă, tibia, radius, falange, subliniind că rezultatele sunt asemănătoare DEXA. Avantajele metodei: absenţa iradierii, tehnică uşor de aplicat, dispozitive mici mobilizabile favorabile studiilor populaţionale (19). Explorarea biochimică a turnover-ului osos cuprinde determinarea markerilor biochimici ai sintezei şi resorbţiei osului (noncolagenici şi cola genici). Între markerii biochimici ai sintezei osului şi-a dovedit utilitatea valoarea fosfatazei alcaline osoase determinată cu anticorpi monoclonali, fiind un marker fidel pentru formarea osului (monitorizează tra-

10 450 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN 2014 tamentul). Osteocalcina, proteină noncolagenică sintetizată de osteoblaste, specifică osului şi dentinei, ca şi peptidele de extensie ale procolagenului de tip I, au valoare practică redusă. Între markerii biochimici noncolagenici ai resorbţiei osului s-au înscris calciuria matinală şi fosfataza acidă, dar valoarea practică s-a dovedit redusă. Sialoproteina osoasă, proteină fosforilată din matricea noncolagenică a osului şi a dentinei, mobilizată de osteoclaste, este un marker pe termen scurt al evoluţiei resorbţiei osoase la adult şi copil; nivelurile serice scad rapid după introducerea tratamentului cu bifosfonat. Markerii biochimici colagenici ai resorbţiei osului cu valoare practică sunt deoxipiridinolina şi peptidele rezultate din telopeptide prin acţiunea metaloproteinazei asupra colagenului de tip I. Depxi piridinolina provine aproape în exclusivitate din os, din porţiunea non-helicoidală a colagenului tip I. Valoarea serică nu este influenţată de alimentaţie şi se corelează cu rezultatele DEXA. Peptidul carboxiterminal rezultat din telopeptide marchează creşterea densităţii osoase atunci când tratamentul osteo porozei este corect, prin scăderea valorilor sale serice şi urinare (10,11). TRATAMENT Extinderea aplicării osteodensitometriei şi implicit creşterea duratei de viaţă în bolile cronice cu repercusiune pe metabolismul osos au dus la raportări tot mai frecvente ale fragilităţii scheletice la copil şi adolescent. Efectele bolilor cronice şi ale unor medicamente administrate cronic asupra osului sunt diferite la adult faţă de cele din perioada de creştere; situs-ul scheletic afectat variază cu vârsta biologică şi cu cea de debut al bolilor cronice (variază fuziunile epifizare). Astfel, experienţele acumulate în trata mentul osteoporozei la adult nu pot fi extrapolate la copil, fiind necesare, în continuare, studii aprofundate. Profilaxia osteopeniei la copil şi adolescent, mai ales la grupa de vârstă ani, cuprinde activitate fizică, nutriţie adecvată etapei de vârstă, combaterea anorexiei, a obezităţii şi asigurarea necesarului zilnic de calciu şi vitamina D. Necesarul zilnic de calciu se adaptează vârstei: 1-3 ani 500 mg/zi, 4-8 ani 800 mg/zi, 9-18 ani mg/zi, în sarcină mg/zi, în lactaţie mg./ zi. Necesarul zilnic mediu de vitamina D este de U/zi, la prematuri şi distrofici în timpul tratamentului recuperator U/zi. Tratamentul cronic cu glucocorticoizi impune un aport de U/zi. Nivelul 25 OHD trebuie menţinut la peste 50 nmoli/l (20 ng/ml.) (20). Concomitent cu adaptarea necesarului de calciu şi vitamina D în toată perioada de creştere trebuie depistate şi corectate eventualele tulburări endocrine (distiroidiile, hipogonadismul), anorexia, obezitatea etc. În bolile cronice mobilizarea, kinetoterapia, asis - tenţa nutriţională individualizată şi corectarea supravegheată a metabolismului osos (osteoden si tometrii repetate, determinarea 25 OHD), scad ris cul de osteo penie (21). Tratamentul medicamentos specific al osteopeniei/osteoporozei constă în administrarea de bifosfonaţi nitrogenici: pamidronat, neridronat, olpadronat, alendronat, ibadronat, risedronat, zole dronat. Mecanismul de acţiune constă în modificarea proteinelor conectate la membrana celulară, implicate în resorbţia osteoclastică, concomitent scăzând osteoclastogeneza şi supravieţuirea osteoclastului (22). La copil tratamentul cu bifosfonaţi nu este bine statuat. S-au acumulat experienţe în osteogenesis imperfecta, osteoporoza juvenilă idiopatică, boala Gaucher, displazia fibroasă, miopatia mitocondrială, fibroplazia osificans progresivă, anorexia nervoasă la adolescente şi în osteopeniile induse de corticoterapia prelungită (8). Durata optimă a tratamentului cu bifosfonaţi la copil, în diverse boli cronice, nu este bine stabilită; în osteogenesis imperfecta corecţia masei osoase începe după 2-4 ani de tratament. Efectele secundare sunt rare, reacţiile pot fi pasagere (1-3 zile), constând în febră, stare de rău, greaţă, diaree, dureri musculare şi osoase. S-au raportat complicaţii severe instalate în timp, ca uveită, trombocitopenie, ulceraţii orale şi eso fagiene. Bifosfonaţii se depozitează în os şi se eliberează în ani. Este necesară o atenţie sporită la tratamentul adoles centelor deoarece bifosfonaţii pot traversa placenta şi afecta dezvoltarea fetală (23). Calcitonina a fost propusă în tratamentul osteopeniei dar doza recomandată la copil nu este bine stabilită; orientativ micrograme/zi în regim alternativ. Administrarea intranazală şi cea injec tabilă au fost însoţite de efecte adverse (bufeuri, greaţă, uscăciunea mucoaselor etc.). În stadiu de experiment se află terapii biologice de viitor: denosumab, inhibitori ai catepsinei K, anticorpi specifici antiscleotină. CONCLUZII Termenul de osteopenie, care defineşte o stare intermediară a masei osoase între normal şi osteo-

11 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 4, AN poroză, s-a impus prin frecvenţă, potenţial de evolutivitate la copil ca şi pentru repercusiunile asupra patologiei osului la adult. Cea mai frecventă este osteopenia secundară ca o manifestare comună a unor subgrupuri de boli cu patogenie diferită. Adesea, la copil, este consecinţa unor tratamente medicamentoase, mai ales a corticoterapiei. Studiul densităţii osoase se impune ca marker fidel de evolutivitate a statusului osos în numeroase boli, dar şi ca metodă screening pentru depistarea osteopeniei la adolescenţi. Masa osoasă de vârf care se obţine până la ani este predictivă pentru sănătatea osului de-a lungul vieţii. Tratamentul este complex şi trebuie adaptat cauzelor osteopeniei, aportul dirijat de calciu şi vitamina D având efect favorabil în cele mai multe cazuri. În formele severe de osteopenie primară sau secundară se recomandă tratament cu bifosfonaţi, orientat de experienţele acumulate.

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