Dr. Braj Bhushan, Dept. of HSS, IIT Guwahati, INDIA

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2 Cognition The word Cognitive or Cognition has been derived from Latin word cognoscere meaning to know or have knowledge of. Although Psychology has existed over past 100 years as an independent discipline, Cognitive Psychology has been there for last 30 years. 2

3 Cognitive Psychology It is a revolt against behaviourism. It is the study of higher mental processes. Cognitive psychologists are interested in studying what happens between the stimuli & the resulting behaviour. Basic Paradigms of Cognitive Psychology New structuralism Man-Machine Relationship (Information processing model & computers) New Mentalism 3

4 Evolution of Cognitive Psychology James highlighted the quality of mental processes that allows us to selectively attend to various tasks. Bartlett (1932, 58) described schemata to explain remembering & thinking as constructive processes. He also discussed the selective utilization of past experiences. 4

5 Evolution of Cognitive Psychology Tolman (1948) observed anticipation, goaldirected behaviour, and the use of cognitive maps in rats. Miller (1956) gave Magic Number and significantly influenced researches in memory. Broadbent (1958) proposed the Filter Model to explain attention. 5

6 Evolution of Cognitive Psychology Kohler (1959) explained chimpanzee s intelligent behaviour using the concept of insight. He defined insight as the appearance of a complete solution with reference to the whole lay-out of the (problem) field. Sperling (1960) discovered Iconic Memory Storage. 6

7 Evolution of Cognitive Psychology Vygotsky (1978) focused on the theme of language as both external and internal speech reflected that action is controlled through the mediation of a symbolic system. Sperry (1993) considered cultural world (population pressure, environmental protection, & social order) also in order to explain mental functions. 7

8 Historical Antecedents Over the past 40 years there has been a shift from behaviourism to structural linguistics and then to cognitive psychology and recently towards socio-cognitivism. 8

9 Historical Antecedents The contributions of Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner and other behaviourists were far accepted till 1959 when Skinner s Verbal Behavior was reviewed by Chomsky reinterpreting behaviourism. 9

10 Historical Antecedents Starting with John Dewey, the works of Piaget (especially the interpretations by Flavell, 1963 and Ginsberg & Opper, 1988), Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1973) were sufficient to establish active cognition. 10

11 New Structuralism Jean Piaget ( ) Cognitive Development Sensory-motor stage (Birth-2 years) Preoperational stage (2-7 years) Concrete operational stage (7-11 years) Formal operational stage (11- adulthood) 11

12 Noam Chomsky Theory of grammar All human beings have a built-in predisposition to learn grammar. Language acquisition device (LAD)/ Acquisition Model (AM) These are innate neurological mechanisms that facilitates child s acquisition of syntax. All children are equipped with certain biological potentials that make them possible to learn any language to which they are exposed. Chomsky has focused mainly upon productive aspect of language. 12

13 Man-Machine Relationship This is the second group of Cognitive Psychologists. This model attempts to explain cognition (the unknown) in terms of the principles of operation of computer (known). Input Detection Coding (Transformation) Output Decoding Decision making Storage & Retrival 13

14 Man-Machine Relationship Sensory Memory STM LTM In STM the information is coded. Those items of information which are processed at deeper level are remembered well even at longer period of time. Logical Theorist (LT) works like human brain & strategies are used for solving a problem. Combining several computer programmes, including LT, General Problem Solver (GPS) was developed which is a programme that could easily simulate the solution of a variety of human problems. 14

15 New Mentalism This is the third group of cognitive psychologists. They give emphasis upon explaining mental processes without the help of principle of association. 15

16 Cognitive Behaviourists They are the cognitive psychologists holding the view that intermediary mental events also control our behaviour. BANDURA is one of the chief proponents of cognitive behaviourism. He has emphasised upon Observational Learning / Modelling. 16

17 Cognitive Psychology Ulrich Neisser (1967) The information received by the sensory input..is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used, even if these processes..operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations (p. 10) Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 17

18 Research Areas of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Neuroscience Imagery Language Artificial Intelligence Developmental Psychology Thinking Cognitive Psychology Perception Attention Pattern Recognition Consciousness Memory Knowledge Representation 18

19 Cognitive Science Cognitive science is the convergence of cognitive psychology, neurosciences and computer science. The three interact with each other to demonstrate the cognitive properties of human beings. 19

20 Neuro & Cognitive Psychology The fusion of neuroscience & cognitive psychology has given birth to Neuropsychology (also referred to as Neurocognition or Cognitive Neuroscience). The neuroscientists are attempting to develop comprehensive models of brain & cognition. They need to know human cognition and their day to day activities. 20

21 Neuro & Cognitive Psychology The connectionists (cognitive experts interested in PDP) are developing psychological models consistent with neural structures and functions. Computer scientists are interested in simulating human cognition to develop computer that can exactly replicate human performance. Presently neuralnets architecture. are being used in computer 21

22 Parallel Distributed Processing & Cognitive Psychology Historically, PDP has its root in the information processing theories. Many people have contributed to the PDP model. David Rumelhart & James McClelland formalized the model. [Parallel Distributed Processing (1986), Cambridge, MA: Bradford] 22

23 Parallel Distributed Processing & Cognitive Psychology Collection of modules process information simultaneously in different ways and memory is basically strengthening of interconnections between these modules. The information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections. A large number of simple processing elements interact among themselves each sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units. 23

24 Parallel Distributed Processing & Cognitive Psychology It provided computationally valid & psychologically accurate account of human cognition. The recent application of PDP can be widely seen in the areas of motor control, perception, memory, language and so forth. 24

25 Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology Anthropologists such as John Tooby & Leda Cosmides and Cognitive Psychologists such as Steve Pinker and Roger Shepard are the proponents of evolutionary view of cognition. There are universal human cognitive attributes. The common attributes of mind are not the result of social interaction but the evolved psychological mechanisms. 25