DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY

Transcription

1 Personality 1.1 Definition of Personality LESSON Objectives DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY 1. To learn the various definitions of personality 2. To understand personality in psychological terms Structure 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Meaning of personality 1.3 Definition of personality Personality vs. Temperament Personality vs. Character Personality vs. Individuality 1.4 Summary 1.5 Technical Terms 1.6 Model Questions 1.7 Reference Books 1.1 Introduction Precivilised human beings were probably aware of what we call personality differences, although they did not know how to explain it. Thinkers of ancient Greece such as Socrates held that man s primary task was to understand and govern himself, and was optimistic about man s capacity to do so, while Plato s most striking formulation was his insight into dreams. Hippocrates developed a theory to account for temperamental differences (the humors). Greek thinkers clearly laid the foundation for a systematic development of the scientific knowledge of personality. By the time psychology gained the status of a separate science in the mid-19 th century, three developments influenced the study of personality. They are: 1. the evolutionary theory 2. measurement of individual differences in intelligence and other psychological functions, and 3. psychopathology Darwin s evolutionary theory focused attention on individual differences and the adjustment process. However, the idea that mental processes could be measured developed rather slowly. Early psychological measurement was concerned primarily with simple sensorimotor tasks or with complex intellectual functions which in turn led to attempts to measure personality and its various processes. This interest in measuring personality was further fuelled by a growing interest in psychopathology. Thus, the idea of personality grew out of society s experiences with individuals whose behavior patterns deviated widely with what was accepted as normal. It is only in the recent past that a science of personality has begun to emerge that is not focused on pathology. 1

2 Centre for Distance Education 1.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University 1.2 Meaning of Personality The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means mask. Thus persona meant as one appears to others, and not what an individual actually is. The word personality is used in various senses. Most of the popular meanings of this word can be grouped under two headings. The first kind of usage equates the term to social skill or dexterity. In this respect, an individual s personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which he or she is able to elicit positive reactions from different people in a variety of situations. For example, when we refer to someone having a personality problem, what we mean is that the individual s social skills are not adequate to maintain satisfactory relations with others around him. The second usage of personality considers the personality of the individual to consist of the most outstanding impression that he or she creates in others. A person may thus be said to have an aggressive personality or a submissive personality or a fearful personality. In each instance, the observer selects the attribute or quality that is an important part of the over-all impression created in others and the person s personality is identified by this term. Personalities can be either good or bad. 1.3 Definitions of Personality Personality can be defined as an individual s unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions. People demonstrate consistency in their behavior across different situations and over long periods of time. Most psychologists now agree that both traits and situations are important. In other words, behavior in a given context is often a combination of both internal, dispositional factors factors people bring with them to that situation and external factors. There are many instances in which situational factors strongly influence peoples dispositions and their expression. Another comprehensive definition of personality states that a personality is the product of the dynamic and characteristic organization within the individual of psychobiological structures, or systems and their interaction with the environment. It is these two aspects individuality of the structured organism and the nature of its environment that determine the individual s specific adjustments to his surroundings. By dynamic organization, psychologists mean that personality traits do not exist independently or act in isolation. They are interrelated, interacting in an organized and coherent manner. The psychobiological structures are the motives, habits, traits, attitudes, feelings, values, ways of thinking and acting. The word psychobiological is used to indicate that personality and its components are neither exclusively biological nor exclusively mental. Interaction with the environment emphasizes that an individual s personality does not merely grow from within. It is the product of the interaction between himself as a developing organism with psychological and biological needs, and with his environment that has nurtured, influenced, satisfied, directed or failed to satisfy those needs. Personality is described in terms of an individual s behavior his actions, words, postures, and attitudes and opinions regarding his external world. It is also described in terms of one s feelings about oneself. In other words, your personality defines you as a person: how you are different from other people and what patterns of behavior are typical of you. 2

3 Personality 1.3 Definition of Personality A third definition defines personality as consistent behavior patterns originating within the individual. According to this definition, personality is consistent. It means that the person s behavior pattern displays some stability. Second, personality originates within the individual. This does not mean that external sources do not influence personality, but behavior is not only because of the situation. For example, the way different people react in fear to the same frightening stimulus. Gordon Allport (1937) identified more than fifty different definitions of personality and classified them into various broad categories. The biosocial definition equates personality to the social stimulus value of the individual. It is the reaction of other individuals to the subject that defines the subject s personality. The biophysical definition states that personality has an organic side as well as a perceived (by others) side, and may be linked to specific qualities of the individual that are inclined to objective description and measurement. The omnibus or rag-bag definition of personality includes everything about the individual and concepts considered of primary importance. The integrative definition places emphasis upon the organizational function of the personality, suggesting that organization results from the personality that is an active force within the individual. Many theorists focus on the function of the personality in mediating the adjustment of the individual. Personality consists of the varied efforts at adjustment that are carried out by the individual. In other definitions, personality is equated to the unique or individual aspects of behavior. It identifies those things about the individual that are distinctive and set him or her apart from all other persons. Other theorists have considered personality to represent the essence of the human condition. These definitions suggest that personality refers to that part of the individual that is most representative of the person, mainly because it is what he or she actually is. No single definition of personality is acceptable to all psychologists, as personality, like intelligence has been hard to define. But most agree that personality includes the behavior patterns a person shows across situations or the psychological characteristics of the person that lead to those behavior patterns. Psychologists now agree that adult personality can be described along five major dimensions extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness/intellect. These five dimensions have also been considered as stable traits over a period of time Personality vs. Temperament It is essential to distinguish between temperament and personality. Temperament is defined as the individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and selfregulation that is displayed in all kinds of settings and situations. Thus, temperament is the basic pattern which, when affected by experiences, is reflected in the personality Personality vs. Character Personality is often confused with character. The two terms are not synonymous and cannot be used interchangeably. Character implies a moral standard of personality and involves judgment of a value. 3

4 Centre for Distance Education 1.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University When used in connection with personality, character relates to behavior that is regulated by personal effort and will. Conscience is an essential element of character. It is a pattern of restrictive training which controls the person s behavior, making him conform to the socially approved patterns of the group Personality vs. Individuality Individuality refers to the uniqueness of personality. Each personality pattern is unique as it differs from other patterns in the combination and organization of traits, strength of traits and in the very core of personality. Individuality is apparent in the structural and behavioral differences of newborns. Individuality increases as children grow older. It is caused partly by hereditary differences which occur due to differences in combinations of genes and partly due to environmental factors that influence the unique hereditary potentials. 1.4 Summary Attempts to study personality can be traced to prehistoric times. Personality can broadly be defined as an individual s unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts and emotions. Psychologists now agree that adult personality can be described along the five major dimensions of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness/intellect. Further, a distinction has also been made between personality, character, individuality, and temperament. 1.5 Technical Terms personality dynamic organization temperament individuality unique and relatively stable patterns of individual s behavior including his actions, words, postures, attitudes and opinions interrelated personality traits which interact in an organized and coherent manner individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation across different settings and situations. uniqueness of personality. 1.6 Model Questions 1. What is the popular understanding of the term personality? Explain with illustrations. 2. Explain Allport s definition of personality. 3. Distinguish between temperament, character and individuality. 1.7 Reference Books Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1993). Introduction to psychology. New Delhi: Tata-McGraw Hill. Hurlock, E. B. (1986). Personality Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Burger, J. M. (1990). Personality. California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Baughman, E. E., & Welsh, G. S. (1962). Personality: A behavioral science. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 4

5 Personality 2.1 Determinants of Personality LESSON - 2 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY 2.0 Objectives 1. To understand how personality is shaped 2. To identify the various determinants of personality Structure 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Determinants of personality Physical Determinants Intellectual Determinants Emotional Determinants Social Determinants Sex Determinants Family Determinants Educational Determinants Achievements and Aspirations 2.3 Summary 2.4 Technical Terms 2.5 Model Questions 2.6 Reference Books 2.1 Introduction Through the centuries, personality has been regarded as a force in determining success or failure in life. One of the most common beliefs regarding personality is that it is inherited; implying that neither training nor learning can influence personality. Closely related to this idea is the belief that certain personality traits accompany physical traits. For example, the fat person is jolly, or the person with a broad forehead is intelligent, etc. Another widely held belief is that personality changes automatically accompany body changes. Since the individual cannot control the physical changes of his body, it is assumed that the personality changes which occur as a result are also beyond the individual s control. Further, according to traditional beliefs, the law of compensation holds good for people also. For instance, a dry summer will be followed by heavy rains in winter. Similarly, an athletic boy is not considered to have necessary intelligence to be academically bright. Research, however, has negated the explanations of personality offered by these traditional beliefs. Researchers have identified a number of determinants of personality which are discussed below. 1

6 Centre for Distance Education 2.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University 2.2 Determinants of personality Physical Determinants Many of the early personality theories followed Hippocrates model. He emphasized physical qualities as being the primary determinants of personality. The body is an important personality determinant because of its direct influence on the quantity and quality of a person s behavior, and its indirect influence through the way the person perceives his body as a source of self-evaluation. Body build influences personality directly by determining what the person can and cannot do, what his energy level will be, and his reaction to those whose body builds are superior or inferior to his. Indirectly, body build influences personality through body cathexis, or the degree of satisfaction the person experiences because of his body. This indirect influence is greater than the direct influences, as the body is a symbol of the self by which others evaluate the person and by which he evaluates himself. The indirect influence of physical attractiveness comes from the attitudes of others towards the person s attractiveness or unattractiveness, and has a tremendous impact on the personality. People like to be associated with attractive people; their treatment of an attractive person is favorable and has a positive effect on his self-concept. Homeostasis, or maintenance of a relatively steady internal environment, affects personality directly through its influence on the quality of the person s behavior and indirectly, through the way others judge his behavior. Behavioral changes occur due to unfavorable physical or psychological conditions that produce states of disequilibrium. Rapid and pronounced physical changes upset homeostasis and affect personality directly through their influence on the person s characteristic patterns of adjustment. Indirectly, the effect of body changes comes from the attitudes of others toward the changes and what roles the social group will allow the individual to play as a result of his changed appearance. The effect of body changes on personality varies according to the speed of the changes, the timing of the changes in relation to similar changes in other members of the social group, how much preparation the person has had for the changes, social attitudes toward the changes, the effect of the changes on the person s attractiveness, health, and body control, and how closely the changes conform to his body ideal. The direct effect of body control on personality comes from its influence on what the person can and cannot do. The indirect effect comes from the judgments others make of him based on the degree of control he has over his body. Awkwardness, caused by rapid body growth, lack of opportunity to learn to coordinate the body, body build, emotional tension, etc., is damaging to the self-concept and leads to unfavorable personal and social judgments. The first scientific recognition of the effects of physical defects on personality comes from Adler s theory of organ inferiority. Current research shows that any physical defect is damaging to the self-concept. Health conditions also affect personality directly through their influence on what a person can do, how well he can do it, and how his appearance is affected by his health. Indirectly, attitudes of significant people about the person s health influence 2

7 Personality 2.3 Determinants of Personality personality. At all ages and among members of both sexes, good health is a personality asset while poor health is a liability Intellectual Determinants Intellectual capacity influences personality directly through the kind of life adjustments the individual makes. Personality is also influenced through the judgments that others make of the individual on the basis of his intellectual achievements. Intellectual development usually occurs according to a general pattern, but there are marked variations in the rate of development in individuals which give rise to adjustment problems. Variations in the rate of intellectual development are due to factors such as physical condition, the use of the intellectual capacities, early home experiences, emotional states, and the personality pattern. Deviant intelligence is intelligence markedly above or below the norm, and affects personality both directly and indirectly. Deviant intelligence directly affects the person s characteristic pattern of adjustment to life. Indirectly, the judgments people make of an individual s intelligence, influence the personality. These judgments are often colored by cultural stereotypes, social attitudes toward people with deviant intelligence, attitudes of significant people, the person s awareness of others attitudes towards him, and his own awareness of how greatly his deviant intelligence differs from others. Deviant intelligence affects peer relationships; and the person s awareness of his peers feelings affects his personality. Intelligence affects adjustment in three main areas values, morality and humor. Values develop through direct learning and identification. Conflicting values arise due to disparities in values learned at home, values based on social and cultural norms, and the individual s personal preferences and needs. Adjustments in the individual s life are dependent on how well he can resolve these conflicts. Intelligence also plays an important role in moral behavior. Learning a moral code of behavior is difficult as the person has to learn a number of other codes, has to adjust to the inconsistencies between people s moral codes and their behavior, and has to make changes in moral codes as new patterns of behavior become socially acceptable. These conflicts lead to a discrepancy in moral knowledge and moral behavior resulting in unfavorable social and self judgments. The influence of humor on personality was explained by Freud, who stated that humor affects a person s behavior, his self-concept and is used as a source of emotional catharsis. Humor indirectly influences personality through the reactions of other people toward the person s expression of humor. Humor directly affects personality by making the person feel superior, by providing release from tension and anxiety, and by helping the person to develop and accept a realistic self-concept Emotional Determinants Emotions color the individual s perception of himself and his environment and affect his behavior. Emotions can add pleasure or pain to a person s life, and emotional experiences affect the person s self-concept at the time of their occurrence. The intensity and duration of an emotion determines the effect it has on the personality. 3

8 Centre for Distance Education 2.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University Emotions have both direct and indirect effects on personality. Direct effects come from physical and mental disturbances, while indirect effects consist of reactions from members of the social group to which the person belongs. Emotions directly affect the individual s physical and mental functioning and his attitudes, interests, and values. Even a mild emotion causes some physical imbalance in the homeostasis. Severe upsets in homeostasis that are caused by strong and persistent emotions disorganize the person s normal pattern of behavior. If emotions are expressed overtly, the person will experience a release of pent-up emotions. If emotion is inhibited, the person is likely to experience functional disorders, psychosomatic disturbances, delusions, hallucinations, and other symptoms of personality maladjustment. With increasing age, the effects of emotions on physical well-being increase, as the elderly person does not have channels for emotional outlet. Thus, physical disturbances caused by intense emotions are prolonged. Mental disturbances brought about by emotional upsets result in decreased mental efficiency as the person under stress is unstable and his performance is inconsistent. Frustration and anxiety have similar effects on the performance of an individual. These emotions prevent the person from doing what he is capable of, and curb any expression of creativity. Another direct effect of emotions is the impact on the person s interest, attitudes, likes and dislikes. People who have more likes than dislikes have healthier, more positive attitudes and make better personal and social adjustments. The indirect effects of emotions on personality arise from the judgments others make of the emotional behavior of the individual, the way they treat the person, and from the kind of emotional relationship the individual has with them. People judge a person more favorably if negative and unpleasant emotions are kept under check. The person s ability or inability to establish emotional relationships with others has a great impact on his personality. Social relationships are influenced to a large extent by the emotional link between people when two people have similar interests, and one person s needs are met through his relationship with the other. Early traumatic experiences in the home and with members of the peer group can result in the individual being unable to form close, intimate relationships in later adult life Social Determinants Social determinants include early social experiences, social deprivation, social acceptance, prejudice and discrimination, group status and social mobility. Whether the person becomes social, unsocial or antisocial depends not on heredity but on early social experiences both inside the home and outside. These early experiences provide the individual opportunities to learn to be social. If early experiences are favorable, the individual becomes a social person; if experiences are unfavorable, the personality may become unsocial or antisocial. Social deprivation deprives a person of opportunities to learn to behave in a socially approved way. This deprivation weakens his motivation to take advantage of any learning opportunities that may occur. Regardless of when social deprivation occurs, it affects the 4

9 Personality 2.5 Determinants of Personality personality in a negative manner. A serious outcome of social deprivation is that it causes the person to be selfish and self-centered. The degree of influence that the social group has on an individual depends not only on how well the person is accepted but also how important social acceptance is to him. Every degree of social acceptance affects the person s self-concept. Irrespective of the individual s attitude toward social acceptance, the group places each individual in a separate category of social acceptance, ranging from very high acceptance to very low acceptance. Most people cluster in the average category of social acceptance by the group. The person s status in the group depends on his personality and factors such as appearance, health and geographical proximity to the group. However, the effects of group status can be perceived only when the person is aware of his status in the group. The status the person holds in the group influences his personality directly through the satisfaction or dissatisfaction he derives from his status and the opportunities his status provides. Prejudice is almost always accompanied by discrimination. It is damaging to the person who discriminates against others, as well as to the person against whom the prejudice is directed. The negative effects are usually seen as a distortion in the person s self-concept. Social mobility can be horizontal or vertical, or, upward or downward. It disturbs the regular pattern of the person s life. Regardless of the form of social mobility, it leads to anxiety, insecurity, and feelings of social isolation. The upwardly mobile person becomes more conforming and status conscious than earlier, while the downwardly mobile person feels guilty and ashamed Sex Determinants Freud was the first person to emphasize the importance of sexuality in shaping the personality. Researchers have now identified that sexuality by itself does not affect personality, but has an impact only when it affects the person s self-concept. Sexuality affects personality both directly and indirectly. Current research indicates that the indirect influences are stronger and more pervasive than the direct influences. The direct effects of sexuality occur due to the sex hormones produced by the sex glands the gonads. The sex hormones influence the growth rate of the individual, the body formation and the functioning and quality of behavior. When the estrogen-androgen balance is normal, the male is masculine in appearance, while the female appears feminine. Normally, from the moment of conception, males and females follow different patterns of development. These differences have a profound influence on personality both directly and indirectly. Differences in behavior are partly due to hormonal differences. The indirect effects of sexuality are responsible for the personality differences between the sexes found in all cultures. Indirect effects are due to cultural influences on the sex drive, attitudes of significant people, and social conformity to sexual norms. Cultural influences. Hormonal levels determine individual differences in the sex drive, responsiveness to the sex drive, and sexual practices. The primary influence however, appears to be learning experiences which shape the person s attitudes towards sex and sexuality. These learning experiences determine not only the pattern of behavior but also the strength of 5

10 Centre for Distance Education 2.6 Acharya Nagarjuna University expression of the sex drive. Cultural practices mould the type and variety of learning that an individual experiences. Learning is largely dependent on the culture in which it takes place. For example, a public display of affection is accepted and endorsed in western society, while such behavior is frowned upon in our country. Attitudes of significant people. People s reactions to an individual based on his/her sex contributes significantly to how the person evaluates himself/herself. Of great importance are parental attitudes. Parental attitudes are reflected in parental behavior. The child can sense whether or not he was the same sex baby that his parents had hoped for. How the child s siblings react to him and the treatment he is meted out, also influence his self-concept. Irrespective of the child s correct or incorrect interpretation of parental and/or sibling behavior, these behaviors affect his attitudes toward himself. Social norms. Even before babyhood is over, there is lot of pressure on the child to behave in a sex-appropriate manner. The child is forced to think of himself in the same terms as the cultural group thinks of individuals of the same sex. In the process of shaping the personality, the cultural group, consisting of the family, then the peer group, and finally the community at large, provide the opportunity and encouragement to learn to behave in an appropriate manner. Opportunities to learn behavior patterns of the opposite sex are deprived as they are considered inappropriate Family Determinants The home is the person s most important and primary environment from birth to the end of his life. Contrary to popular belief that the role of the family in shaping personality ends with childhood, evidence has pointed out that the influence of family is present throughout the life span. The strong influence that family has on an individual s personality is due to: The large amount of time spent in the home, The control that family members exert over a person s behavior, The permanency of family relationships and The early foundations of social experiences that are laid in the family. The direct influence of the family on personality development comes from the childrearing methods used to mould the personality pattern. The communication of interests, attitudes, and values between family members also has an important role to play in the family shaping the personality. Indirect influences are, first, the person s identification with a family member he admires, respects and loves, and whom he unconsciously imitates. Secondly, the family provides a mirror-image for the individual with which he evaluates himself. The emotional climate of the home exerts a great influence on the personalities of all the family members. A favorable emotional climate is aided by empathy, communication between members, respecting each others opinions, togetherness, and strategies for coping with disagreements. An unfavorable home climate is caused by friction between family members, favoritism, feelings of inadequacy about the roles they are required to play, differences of opinion, and lack of emotional warmth between family members. 6

11 Personality 2.7 Determinants of Personality Order of birth of the person in his family affects personality directly because of the role the person is expected to play. Indirectly, ordinal position affects the home climate. Size of the family influences personality directly by determining what role the person plays, and indirectly by the kind of home climate associated with families of different sizes. Family composition also plays a role in shaping the personality as it provides sources for identification and imitation. Families can be nuclear, extended or joint. Regardless of the size and composition of the family, every member is expected to play a certain role. Roles may be traditionally prescribed. If the person plays the role allotted to him satisfactorily, it leads to favorable judgments and consequently, favorable self-evaluations Educational Determinants Schools, colleges and teachers have the greatest influence on personality development after the home and parents. Children attend school in the early years of life when the personality pattern is being formed and spend more time in school than in any other place. Educational institutions give children their first opportunities to assess their strengths and weaknesses, and provide young people with opportunities to achieve their goals. The degree to which education and educational institutes influence personality development depends largely on the student s attitudes toward schools and colleges, teachers, and the value of education. There are marked variations in attitudes toward education depending on sex of the student, child-rearing practices at home, the social class to which the child belongs, ethnic and religious background and the student s own adjustment to school. Favorable attitudes toward school result in the student working up to his potential, while unfavorable attitudes to education and school lead to under-utilization of capacities, complaining, and truancy. If a child is physically and psychologically ready to start school or go on for further studies, his attitude tends to be more favorable than if he is not ready either physically or psychologically. Physical and psychological readiness determines the kind of early experiences the student has in the school. The more favorable these early experiences are, the more favorable the student s attitudes, and consequently, the better his adjustment. The emotional climate of the school is determined by the teachers attitude toward teaching, students, and administrative policies. This affects the motivation of students to work hard. Influence of emotional climate is greatest in early years when self-concept is being formed. Student-teacher relationships also affect the student s attitudes toward specific subjects as well as toward education in general. As academic success is highly valued by society as an indicator of success, the student s achievements in school affect his personality through self and social evaluations Achievements and Aspirations People are judged based on their achievements in comparison with peers. Achievements in highly valued areas are considered superior and judged favorably by the social group. Aspirations are the ego-involved goals that a person sets for himself. The more ego-involved a person s aspirations, the more they relate to areas that are important to him and the greater the influence on personality. Aspirations may be positive (to achieve success), negative (to avoid failure), immediate (to achieve a goal in the near future), remote (achieve goal in the distant future), realistic (within his capacity) or unrealistic (beyond person s capacity). 7

12 Centre for Distance Education 2.8 Acharya Nagarjuna University The kind of aspirations the person develops is influenced by factors such as intelligence, sex, personal interests and values, family pressures, group expectations, cultural norms, competition with others, past experiences, mass media and personal characteristics. The level of aspiration also affects personality. Achievements can be judged objectively by comparing the person s achievements with those of his peers, and by comparing his achievements with his level of aspiration. Many factors are responsible for achievement: training, experience, past achievements, flexibility, independence, risk-taking, and motivation. Failure is damaging to personality because of unfavorable social judgments and selfevaluations. Failure may occur due to various causes such as lack of ability, lack of adequate training, lack of motivation, unrealistic aspirations, or realistic aspirations that are blocked by environmental obstacles. The degree of dissatisfaction a person experiences on failure varies according to his expectations of failure or success, appropriateness of goals, failure tolerance, and expectations of social group. The point in time when the person experiences success of failure also influences personality. 2.3 Summary Various determinants have been identified as having a great impact on the shaping of the personality. They include physical determinants such as body build, attractiveness, physical changes, homeostasis, and health conditions. Intellectual development and deviant intelligence are the intellectual determinants of personality. Emotional determinants such as emotional deprivation, emotional balance, and emotional expression have a great influence on the personality. Early social experiences, social deprivation, social acceptance, prejudice, discrimination, group status and social mobility are the social determinants which affect personality development. Sex determinants, educational determinants, family determinants and the aspirations and achievements of the individual also play a major role in the development of the personality. 2.4 Technical Terms determinants factors or causes that influence and shape the personality homeostasis social deprivation balance of internal states that is maintained within the body lack of opportunities to interact and learn in social situations 2.5 Model Questions 1. Briefly explain the physical determinants of personality. 2. How do social determinants shape the personality? 3. Explain the role of the family in personality development. 2.6 Reference Books Hurlock, E. B. (1986). Personality Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. 8

13 Personality 3.1 Personality Assessment LESSON - 3 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT 3.0 Objectives 1. To understand the need for personality assessment. 2. To learn about the various methods of personality assessment. Structure 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Objective Tests of Personality Assessment Bell Adjustment Inventory Bernreuter Personality Inventory California Psychological Inventory Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Eyesenck Personality Inventory Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) 3.3 Projective Methods of Personality Assessment Inkblot Techniques The Rorschach Test The Holtzman Inkblot Test Pictorial Techniques The Thematic Apperception Test Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Test Verbal Techniques Word Association Test Sentence Completion Test Performance Techniques Drawing Techniques Play Techniques and Toy Tests 3.4 Summary 3.5 Technical Terms 3.6 Model Questions 3.7 Reference Books 3.1 Introduction Personality can be assessed with the help of various methods such as assessment, interviews, observation, self-report questionnaires, and projective tests. 1

14 Centre for Distance Education 3.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University How can we be sure that the modern methods of personality assessment are accurate and true? Two standards for evaluating tests are reliability and validity. Reliability is a measure of the stability of test scores over time. It measures the extent to which a test gives similar scores with retesting. Validity on the other hand, is the extent to which a test measures what it was designed to measure rather than some other dimension. Selection of content is equally important when constructing a personality test. Four methods have been used in selecting and developing the content of personality inventories. These methods are content validation, criterion groups, construct validation, and factoranalysis techniques. Regardless of the procedure employed, any scale or test must prove its reliability and validity and must be based upon psychological concepts that will contribute to analyses and descriptions of personalities. 3.2 Objective Tests of Personality Assessment The objective tests of personality assessment are structured and standardized measurement devices which are self-reporting in nature Bell Adjustment Inventory It consists of questions intended to evaluate the subject s status in respect to home (satisfaction or dissatisfaction with home life); health (extent of illness); social adjustment (extent of shyness, submissiveness, introversion); emotional adjustment (extent of depression, nervousness); and masculinity-femininity (the extent to which the person displays typical masculine or feminine traits). In spite of criticisms, psychologists have found the test useful in placing the individual in a relative position with a group in specified areas of behavior. The inventory is based on content validity Bernreuter Personality Inventory This is a questionnaire used for students from age nine to sixteen and for adults. The items measure six traits: neurotic tendency, self-sufficiency, intoversion-extroversion, dominancesubmission, confidence and sociability. The chief purpose of this tool is to aid in identifying persons at the extreme ends of the scale California Psychological Inventory Based on content validity, it is organized around the concept of life adjustment as a balance between personal and social adjustment. It has five scales: primary, elementary, intermediate, secondary and adult. Questions are grouped broadly under personal adjustment and social adjustment. These two categories assist in identifying some of the principal sources of an individual s problems. The inventory provides an opportunity for responses that may be symptomatic of maladjustment Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory This is one of the most elaborate instruments for measuring personality. It can be administered for persons above sixteen years of age or those who can read. The inventory consists of 530 statements. The statements cover a wide range of areas including physical condition, morale, and social attitudes. Separate scales measure nine categories of hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity interest, 2

15 Personality 3.3 Personality Assessment paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania. Social introversion has been added which is measured from the original test items Eyesenck Personality Inventory This self-assessment personality scale measures emotionality vs. stability, extroversion vs. introversion, tough-mindedness, sociability, and a tendency to fake good answers. The concept of psychotism, which is an underlying personality trait present in varying degrees in all persons, was introduced. If it is present to a certain degree, it predisposes a person to the development of a psychiatric disorder Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) The 16PF questionnaire is an objectively scorable test devised to give the most complete coverage of personality. The test measures 16 functionally independent and psychologically meaningful dimensions. Any item in the test contributes to the score on only one factor. In addition to the 16 primary factors, the test measures eight secondary dimensions which are broader traits. 3.3 Projective Methods of Personality Assessment A projective test provides the subject with an ambiguous or unclear stimulus situation, such as pictures, ink blots seeing which the person has to either make a story or describe his or her perception. This gives the person an opportunity to impose upon it his or her own private (unconscious) needs and particular interpretations. A projective test is intended to elicit responses that will reveal the individual s personality structure, feelings, values, motives, characteristic modes of adjustment, or complexes. Projective tests are tests of perception and meaning and are dependent on individual mental processes. The results of a projective test are used to interpret and understand the personality as a whole Inkblot Techniques The Rorschach Test One of the most popular projective techniques is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after the founder, Hermann Rorschach. The test consists of ten cards five in black and white, two in black, white and color, and three in various colors (chromatic). The subject is asked to respond to each of the ten cards and responses are noted down. Responses are then scored for location, determinants, color, movement, originality, and content. The test was developed as a practical tool to be applied to clinical cases in the study of unconscious factors in perception and meaning. It also aims at revealing dynamic factors of behavior and personality. Rorschach based the test on the principle that the performance of a person is an expression of his total personality, especially when the stimulus situations are ambiguous. In responding to inkblots, the subject is generally unaware of what he reveals The Holtzman Inkblot Test This technique is a variation on the original Rorschach method. It consists of two alternate forms, each of which has 45 cards. Here, the subject is asked to give only one response to each card, thus allowing control over the number of responses. 3

16 Centre for Distance Education 3.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University Pictorial Techniques The Thematic Apperception Test Referred to as the TAT, this technique consists of pictures and a blank card. The cards are used depending upon sex and age of the individual. The person being examined is told that this is a test of imagination, that he/she should make up stories to suit himself and that there is no right or wrong response. The subject is asked to tell what caused the scene in the card; give an account of what is happening and the feelings of the characters in the picture; and to tell what the outcome will be. The subject s stories are a product of his inner personality traits, and a superficial reflection of cultural forces. The TAT has been devised to bring out the content of an individual s personality: the needs, drives, sentiments, conflicts, complexes and fantasies. The test is based on the principle that when a person interprets an ambiguous situation, he is bound to reveal aspects of his own personality which he is otherwise not aware of, and may not admit Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Test The full name of the test is Picture-Association Study for Assessing Reactions to Frustration. Consisting of 24 cartoon-like pictures, the test is intended to serve as a projective method for revealing the subject s characteristic patterns of response to common stressproducing situations regarded as important in normal and abnormal adjustment. The assumption is that the subject identifies himself consciously or unconsciously with the frustrated individual in each situation and that his replies are projections of his own ways of acting Verbal Techniques Though all projective tests require verbal responses, some techniques are completely verbal, using only words in both stimulus materials and responses. Some of these verbal techniques can be administered in either oral or written form, and all are suitable for written group administration Word Association Test The word association method was used as a quick means of detecting complexes. Jung devised a list of one hundred words to represent common emotional complexes. Replies to stimulus words that are emotionally toned for the subject generally have a longer reaction time. The best known of the word-association tests is the Kent-Rosanoff test used to differentiate between the mentally ill and the normal. They used words which were not intended to indicate personal emotional problems but were neutral in character. They provided evidence on the basis of the proportion of common (normal) responses to the uncommon (abnormal) Sentence Completion Test These tests present the individual with a series of incomplete sentences, generally open at the end, to be completed by the subject in one or more words. The sentence completion test is regarded as superior to the word-association test as the subject has opportunity to respond with more than one word, greater flexibility and variety of response is possible, and more areas of personality and experience can be tapped. One of the most frequently used tests is The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank. This test is designed to estimate the subject s degree and areas of maladjustment, if any exist. This type of test is most useful for identifying areas of behavioral 4

17 Personality 3.5 Personality Assessment problems and for providing diagnostic clues. Sentence completion tests evoke personality materials that are closer to the level of awareness than those evoked by the Rorschach and TAT Performance Techniques A large number of projective techniques consist of many forms of relatively free selfexpression. All these techniques have been employed as therapeutic as well as diagnostic procedures. Through the opportunities for self-expression the individual not only reveals her or his emotional difficulties but also relieves them. The most frequently used methods in this category are drawing and play techniques. A majority of these methods are used primarily with children, though they may be used with adults also Drawing Techniques The Draw-a-Person Test is used with individuals above 2 years of age, and requires the subject to draw a person. When the first drawing is complete, he is instructed to draw a person of the opposite sex. The subject is then asked to tell a story about each person he has drawn. Each drawing is analyzed for specified characteristics; and comparisons are made between the two drawings to identify the subject s attitudes toward himself and toward his own as well the opposite sex. Analyses and interpretations are based on upon the hypothesis that the drawings represent one s conception of the body in the environment a body image. Conflicting needs and tensions are expressed through details and organization of the drawn figures. The House-Tree-Person Projective Technique for ages five and above requires the subject to draw a house, a tree, and a person. While the drawings are being made, the examiner takes notes on sequence of detail, tempo, spontaneous comments and general behavior. A planned interview, including a set of standardized questions follows the completion of the drawings. The purpose of the interview is to provide insights into various aspects of the drawings and having the subject describe, clarify, and interpret the drawn wholes. The test attempts to evaluate affective tone, quality of verbalizations, drive, psychosexual level, reactions to the environment, interpersonal relations, intrapersonal balance, major needs, and major assets. The qualitative analysis utilizes Freudian, neo-freudian and other concepts. The house relates to the subject s home and those living with him; the tree concerns his life role and his ability to derive satisfaction from his environment; the person represents his general and specific interpersonal relations Play Techniques and Toy Tests Since play is free of the constraints of ordinary adult activity and free of those imposed by adults on children, it is useful as a projective technique in the study of the less apparent aspects of personality. It is unstructured, provides opportunity for fantasy and imagination, and gives scope to individuality of expression. As a method of personality diagnosis and therapy, play is almost solely used with children. In the play technique, the child is introduced to a collection of toys which he/she is permitted to use freely, while the observer notes the child s activities with respect to the particular items employed, how they are used, the organization or patterning of the toys, attitudes toward each toy, vocalizations, and general behavior in the play situation. The toys include dolls representing members of the family, furniture, water, sand, vehicles, animals, building blocks, balloons, sticks and/or any other objects that might be relevant in a particular instance. The value 5

18 Centre for Distance Education 3.6 Acharya Nagarjuna University of the test depends on the interpretation of the child s performance and upon demonstrable relationships between this play activity and children s problems of adjustment. 3.4 Summary Personality can be assessed through methods such as interviews, self-report questionnaires and projective techniques. The self-report inventories are more objective, while the projective tests depend on the interpretations and unconscious meanings people read into ambiguous stimuli. It is important to use the appropriate test according to the requirement and the aspect of the personality the examiner wishes to measure. 3.5 Technical Terms projective tests tests that are unstructured and ambiguous meant to assess the unconscious needs and perceptions of the individual reliability the extent to which a test gives similar scores with retesting validity the extent to which a test measures what it was designed to measure objective tests structured and standardized measures of personality which are self-reporting in nature. 3.6 Model Questions 1. What are the different kinds of personality tests? 2. Explain objective tests of personality assessment. 3. Briefly describe any two projective tests. 3.7 Reference Books Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Pearson Education. Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., 6

19 Personality 4.1 Introduction to Structure, Development & LESSON - 4 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT & DYNAMICS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 4.0 Objectives 1. To understand psychoanalysis as a theory of personality 2. To identify key concepts of psychoanalysis Structure of the lesson 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Theory of personality Physiological view Social view Psychological view 4.3. Concepts of Psychoanalysis 4.4. Summary 4.5. Technical Terms 4.6. Model Questions 4.7. Reference Books 4.1 Introduction Psychoanalysis is a major school in psychology, largely associated with the name of the 19 th century thinker and clinician, Sigmund Freud. It has a number of distinctive features to its credit. First, it is the only major school in psychology that did not originate in academic centres of university departments; instead its beginnings are found in the observations and practice of the clinic. Second, it revolutionized the concept of treatment for psychological disturbances by proposing a method of psychological treatment based on psychological concepts such as understanding of the unconscious, instincts, free association, dream interpretation, and so on. The history of modern psychotherapy in fact begins with the work of Sigmund Freud. Third, psychoanalysis is both a theory of personality as well as a system of psychotherapy. As a theory of personality, it aims at providing explanations of human behavior and experience by revealing the underlying mental forces. As a system of psychotherapy its basic goal is to bring to consciousness the unconscious impulses causing neurotic conflict and thereby help the person gain greater self knowledge and self control. Psychoanalysis is a product of the culture of late 19 th century Europe. Among the specific influences which led to the development of psychoanalysis, the foremost is Darwin s theory of evolution. Many of Freud s assumptions and ideas such as the significance of development, the process of change, the concepts of fixation and regression derive almost directly from evolutionary thinking. 1

20 Centre for Distance Education 4.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University The development of the psychological idea of association provided the broad framework in which mental functioning could be understood. Freud s concept of free association was based directly on the principles of association. The growth of neurology in the 19 th century also contributed to the understanding of mental processes. 4.2 Theory of personality The psychoanalytic theory of personality can be considered from three points of view: physiological, social, and psychological Physiological view Physiological structures present in an organism are referred to as instincts, drives, instinctual drives, sexuality, psychosexuality or libido in the psychoanalytic theory. According to Freud, the physiological drives are more important in childhood than in later life as they exert a significant influence in the formative years. However, Freud was aware of the dichotomy present between drive and control of the instincts expressed in the form of defenses against anxiety, growing from the pleasure principle to the reality principle, and as the conflict between ego and id Social view The impact of social influences has received due importance in psychoanalysis. Society is seen as a collection of individuals, in which the family is the core of the social structure. Every culture has specific socialization procedures which give rise to conflicts between parents and children over appropriate behavior. These interactions may either be gratifying or frustrating depending on the love or hate within the family structure Psychological view Inner psychological states begin to develop at a very early stage. These inner psychological states manifest themselves in behavior, fantasy and life. A person may become psychologically sick because of frustrating early experiences which become part of the inner states. These experiences are internalized by the individual and are difficult to dislodge, making the person inaccessible to others influences. Covert anxiety, which can only be inferred from a total picture of the personality, has been given enormous importance, and studied extensively by psychoanalytic theory. 4.3 Concepts of Psychoanalysis The psychoanalytic theory of personality explains any human event or experience with reference to a number of different points of view. These views are: (1) topographic, (2) genetic, (3) dynamic, (4) economic, (5) structural, (6) interpersonal, (7) cultural, and (8) adaptive. The topographic point of view explains the concept of the unconscious. According to this view, a mental event can be unconscious, preconscious, or conscious. The unconscious consists of wishes which are repressed because of anxiety. The presence of the unconscious is felt only when these repressed wishes are expressed in the form of fantasies and dreams, neurotic symptoms, or overt active behavior. The genetic-developmental view is one of the fundamental bases for the understanding of the individual. The development process is described in Freud s psychosexual stages of development. Sexuality is divided into three main periods: from birth to the ages of three to five, from age five to puberty, and puberty, when sexuality reaches its adult form. 2

21 Personality 4.3 Introduction to Structure, Development & The dynamic point of view understands the human psyche as an interplay between dynamic emotional forces while the economic point of view stresses upon the quantitative factor in mental functioning. It was originally hypothesized that mental energy could be quantified. The structural or tripartite view sees the personality as divided into three parts the id, ego and superego. The id is the source of all drives, and is the reservoir of instincts. The ego is the executive of the personality, and is the mediator between the demands of the id and the external environment. The superego consists of moral and social values, and is the internal representative of parents. It acts as the mediator between the individual and the environment. The interpersonal point of view stresses on the interpersonal context of all human activities. In the early years of a person s life, the interpersonal context consists almost entirely of the family, from which all later relationships develop. The essential traits of the personality become fixed by the time the child begins to go to school, by which time the superego has formed. The cultural point of view has stressed upon the role that the broader culture plays in the formation and maintenance of the personality structure. Freud revealed that the same psychological mechanisms can be found in all cultures. Thus, it can be deduced that the same needs exist in human beings in all cultures, but are moulded in different ways in different cultures. The adaptive point of view focuses on the need of the human being to adapt himself to his environment. However, psychoanalytic thought is more concerned with the individual s ability to adapt to other people the interpersonal and cultural aspect of adaptation is considered the real problem. 4.4 Summary Psychoanalysis is both a system of psychology and a theory of personality, and offers one of the most comprehensive explanations of the formation, structure, and dynamics of personality. Psychoanalysis stresses on the unconscious, dynamic forces, the role of instincts, the need for socialization, the fundamental role of the family, the developmental process, and the growth and crystallization of the personality in inner psychological states. 4.5 Technical Terms tripartite topography of the mind the structure of personality which is divided into the id, ego and superego the theory of the unconscious which states that the mind is divided into the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious 4.6 Model Questions 1. Explain the different viewpoints of the theory of personality in psychoanalysis. 2. What are the various concepts in psychoanalysis used to explain personality? 4.7 Reference Books Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. Corsini, R. (Ed.). (1973). Current Psychotherapies. Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. 3

22 Personality 5.1 Freud s Psychoanalytic Theory LESSON - 5 FREUD S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 5.0 Objectives 1. To learn about the psychoanalytic theory 2. To understand personality through psychoanalytic theory Structure of lesson 5.1 Introduction 5.2 View of the individual Topography of the mind Structure of personality 5.3 Anxiety 5.4 Ego defense mechanisms 5.5 Psychosexual Stages of development Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage 5.6 Theory of instincts Life instincts Death instincts 5.7 Summary 5.8 Technical Terms 5.9 Model Questions 5.10 Reference Books 5.1 Introduction Psychoanalysis is a theory of personality that attempts to understand how the personality is formed, how it develops, how it breaks down in sickness and how it becomes healthy. Founded and developed by Sigmund Freud, a neurologist in Vienna in the late 19 th century, the system of psychoanalysis has been expanded and reformulated by several others such as Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and Harry Sullivan. 5.2 View of the individual A major tenet of psychoanalysis, which Freud developed, is the principle of psychic determinism. According to this principle, the human being is seen as an organism driven by unconscious, innate forces. Behavior is determined by previous behavior and by the biological drives. Freud believed that nothing happens by chance or at random and all behavior is meaningful if the person has sufficient insight to understand it. According to Freud, the basic personality pattern is established by the age of five. 1

23 Centre for Distance Education 5.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University Topography of the mind Freud evolved the concept of the unconscious and defined three constructs of the mind: the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious. The conscious is all that we are aware of in ourselves and in our environment. The unconscious is the bigger area consisting of events, wishes, desires, and impulses that have been repressed or censored from the conscious mind. These mental events are not accessible to the conscious mind. The preconscious is the censor that acts on the memories in the unconscious. After a memory is scrutinized, it is allowed to pass into consciousness; if not, it is repressed into the unconscious Structure of personality According to Freud, the personality is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and the superego. Each of these structures has its own functions, properties, and mechanisms. Behavior is almost always the product of an interaction between these three systems. The id consists of all aspects that are physiological in nature and inherited aspects that are present at birth. It is the reservoir of psychic energy and functions to reduce tension. Its sole purpose is to obtain pleasure, and operates on the pleasure principle. The id functions by two processes: the primary process, present in the unconscious, which seeks to alleviate tension immediately and the pleasure principle that makes the organism seek immediate satisfaction of instinctual needs. The ego evolves out of the id as the child develops. The ego operates on the reality principle through the secondary process that develops at the conscious level of thinking. The reality principle ensures that pleasure is obtained in accordance with the demands of reality. The ego is said to be the executive of the personality as it decides what needs should be satisfied and to what extent. The ego also functions to protect the self by employing appropriate defense mechanisms. The superego is the moral arm of the personality it represents the ideal rather than the real and strives for perfection rather than pleasure. The superego is our conscience and develops as a result of the rewards and punishments given by parents. Whatever is taught as improper is incorporated into the conscience and what is approved of is incorporated into the ego ideal through introjection. This is the process by which parental and societal values are internalized by the individual. The superego functions unconsciously to a large extent, and with its formation, self-control takes over from parental control. The main functions of the superego can be summed up as: to inhibit sexual or aggressive impulses of the id, as the expression of these impulses is condemned by society, to persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and, to strive for perfection. 2

24 Personality 5.3 Freud s Psychoanalytic Theory The id, ego and superego work on different principles under the administrative leadership of the ego, and function as a whole. The id may be thought of as the biological component of personality, the ego as the psychological and the superego as the social component. 5.3 Anxiety Anxiety is a state of tension. The external world plays a part in shaping the personality as it can threaten as well as satisfy. When threatened, the ego becomes anxious. The function of anxiety is to warn the person of impending danger and signal the ego that appropriate measures are to be taken. Freud identified three types of anxieties: reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the fear of real dangers in the external world. Neurotic anxiety is the fear that instincts will get out of control and that the individual will be punished for it. Moral anxiety is fear of the conscience; people with well developed superegos often feel moral anxiety. When the ego cannot cope with anxiety by rational methods it has to fall back upon unrealistic ones called the defense mechanisms. 5.4 Ego Defense Mechanisms When the ego is undergoing extreme anxiety, it is forced to take extreme measures called defense mechanisms to relieve the pressure. These defenses are used to keep the unacceptable impulses of the id out of consciousness and prevent their open expression. All defense mechanisms have two common characteristics: 1. they deny, falsify, or distort reality, and 2. they operate unconsciously so that the person is not aware of what is taking place. Some of the most common defense mechanisms are described below. Repression. Repression is the ego s refusal to allow a forbidden id impulse or accompanying memories, emotions, desires, or wish-fulfilling fantasies to become conscious. It is the forgetting of unacceptable thoughts or impulses - unconscious forgetting. The person who is repressing a memory is usually not aware that something is forgotten. Reaction Formation. It is the blocking of an impulse that the ego labels dangerous and whose presence causes anxiety. By strengthening and emphasizing the opposite impulse, reaction formation keeps the forbidden impulse out of awareness. This process is also unconscious. For example, hate could appear as a reaction formation against love, if love was viewed as a threat. Isolation. It is the recollection of memories of the past without the accompanying feeling or emotion. In other words, the affect is isolated from the memory. The affect or the emotion is repressed, but the memory of the wish or incident remains conscious. In this way, we block frightening or painful memories of emotion from the consciousness, thereby reducing the threat. Undoing. This is the attempt to undo an act or impulse from the id that the ego considers dangerous, such as a hostile or sexual act. For example, a four-year-old hits his younger sister and then hugs her to undo the harm. 3

25 Centre for Distance Education 5.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University Denial. When certain unpleasant or unwanted aspects of the outside world s reality are blocked from the consciousness, denial is in effect. Thus, a person who believes that he is a bright, gifted student denies the external reality of his poor school grades. Projection. This is the act of not being aware of one s own wish or attitude and instead, attributing it to some other person or external object. The child who is jealous of a classmate might explain to his friends how that particular classmate is jealous of him because of his toys, or his school grades, etc. Regression. It occurs when the ego is faced with severe conflicts with the id impulses. The ego may regress to a previous stage where the sense of equilibrium is maximized and sense of anxiety is minimized. The points to which a person regresses are called points of fixation. Sublimation. This is the unconscious procedure of accepting a forbidden impulse through the secondary process and turning it into a related, yet socially acceptable activity that gratifies the basic impulse. It is commonly believed that many of our aggressive drives are sublimated into acceptable sporting activities. For example, a very aggressive person might sublimate his aggression and become a boxer. Sexual drives are sublimated into activities such as working, seeking power, influence and money. Rationalization. It is the process of organizing facts, attitudes, and beliefs into an explanation for an individual s behavior that is believed to be far more acceptable both socially and personally. The facts are usually distorted and organised to support the individual s behavior or beliefs. A student, for instance, who has failed may rationalize his failure by his belief that the teachers were not fair in evaluation. Displacement. It is the purposeful and unconscious shifting from one object to another in order to solve a conflict. Although the object is changed, the impulse and its aim remain unchanged. For example, the individual who has been reprimanded by his boss in the office may shout at his wife once he reaches home, displacing his anger toward his boss onto his wife. Intellectualization. This is a systematic manner of thinking where the affect is removed from the event or situation in order to defend against anxiety caused by these unacceptable impulses. By merely thinking about them, instead of experiencing them, the person tries to avoid the negative associations of the impulses. Defenses have further been classified into four types according to the level of adaptation and use. Narcissistic defenses are used by children and psychotics. Immature defenses are used by adolescents and are seen in depression, obsessions, and compulsions. Neurotic defenses are seen in adults under stress and can be observed in obsessive-compulsive and hysteric persons. Mature defenses are normal adult adaptive mechanisms. 5.5 Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychosexual stages of development are innately determined stages of sexual development through which all individuals pass. According to Freud, the first few years of life are decisive and extremely important for the formation of the personality. Freud introduced the concept of infantile sexuality when he described the five stages of development: the oral, anal, 4

26 Personality 5.5 Freud s Psychoanalytic Theory phallic, latency and genital stages. These stages are not discrete; as development occurs one stage merges with the other, producing a smooth transition Oral Stage The oral stage occurs at birth and lasts about one and a half years. The mouth is center of gratification. The primary sexual organ is the mouth as it seeks to suck, bite, and put objects in the mouth as its source of pleasure. When gratification is thwarted, the person may become fixated at the oral stage and may develop into either of two types of personality: oral aggressiveness is shown by sarcasm and argumentativeness, and biting, chewing and destroying; and oral eroticism where in the person will swallow almost anything, and acquires pleasure in amassing knowledge or possessions Anal Stage This stage extends from 1-3 years approximately, and the anus becomes the central area of sexual tension and pleasure. The child has to learn to control the pleasure that follows from relieving anal tension. If the parents are very strict and repressive in their methods, the child may hold back its feces and become constipated and will develop into an obstinate and stingy personality. If the parents plead and cajole the child, and praise it on expulsion of feces, the child understands the importance of bowel movement and may develop into a creative and productive adult personality Phallic Stage In this stage of personality development, sexual interests, stimulation and excitement of the genital area become primary. The Oedipus complex appears in this stage. The Oedipus complex is a sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite sex and hostile feelings for the parent of the same sex. Boys experience castration anxiety the fear of the removal of his genital organs and girls experience castration complex or penis envy she does not have something which the boy has. The repression of the Oedipus complex causes the superego to undergo the final development Latency Stage The above mentioned three stages are known as the pregenital stages. The child then goes into a prolonged latency period, or the quiet years, as there is a repression of sexual urges. In this period, the child is more involved in same sex friendships, learning and play activities, exploring the environment, and learning how to deal with the adult world. This is a crucial period for developing essential skills Genital Stage The genital stage extends from the onset of puberty till the person reaches young adulthood. The adolescent begins to love others for altruistic purposes and sexual attraction, socialization, group activities, vocational planning, and preparations for marrying and raising a family begin to appear. The person becomes a reality-oriented and socialized adult. The principal biological function of the genital stage is that of reproduction. The final organization of personality represents contributions from all stages of development. 5

27 Centre for Distance Education 5.6 Acharya Nagarjuna University 5.6 Theory of Instincts Freud classified instincts as life instincts (Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). An instinct is an inborn psychological representation of an internal bodily arousal. The psychological representation is called a wish and the physiological arousal arising from it is called need. According to Freud, these instincts represent the forces that underlie the sexual and aggressive drives Life instincts Hunger, thirst and sex are life instincts as they serve the purpose of individual survival. The energy of life instincts is called libido. Life instinct refers to the tendency of particles to unite, as in sexual reproduction Death instincts Freud stated that the goal of all life is death, and defined thanatos as the tendency of organisms and their cells to return to an inanimate state. An example of the death instinct is the aggressive drive. Aggressiveness is self-destruction turned outward onto substitute objects. A person fights with other people and is destructive because the death wish is blocked by the forces of the life instincts and other obstacles in the personality. 5.7 Summary Freud developed one of the most comprehensive theories of personality. He mapped the mind and identified the preconscious, unconscious and the conscious. Freud explained the structure of the personality in terms of the id, ego and superego which are responsible for the functioning of the individual. To deal with the anxieties of everyday life, the ego uses defense mechanisms to protect the personality. According to Freud, the personality is shaped by innate instincts and early childhood experiences which occur during the psychosexual stages of development. 5.8 Technical Terms defense mechanisms psychosexual stages strategies used by the ego to protect the person from anxietycausing situations that cannot be resolved immediately. the stages of development of the personality as described by Freud 5.9 Model Questions 1. Explain Freud s psychosexual stages of development. 2. What are the ego-defense mechanisms? Illustrate your answer with examples Reference Books Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Pietrofesa, J. J., Hoffman, A., & Splete, H. H. (1984). Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Corsini, R. (Ed.). (1973). Current Psychotherapies. Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. 6

28 Personality 6.1 Jung s Analytic Theory and Adler s. LESSON - 6 JUNG S ANALYTIC THEORY AND ADLER S SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY 6.0 Objectives 1. To understand Jung s explanation of personality 2. To understand the structure of personality according to Adler Structure 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Structure of personality The Ego The Personal Unconscious The Collective Unconscious Introversion - Extraversion 6.3 Development of personality Causality vs. Teleology Progression and Regression The Individuation Process 6.4 Adler s individual psychology 6.5 Striving for superiority 6.6 Inferiority feelings and compensation 6.7 Social interest 6.8 Style of life 6.9 Creative self 6.10 Summary 6.11 Technical Terms 6.12 Model Questions 6.13 Reference Books 6.1 Introduction Carl Jung s psychoanalytic school, known as analytical psychology, includes basic ideas related to Freud s theories. He expanded on Freud s concept of the unconscious by describing the collective unconscious as consisting of all humankind s common and shared mythological and symbolic past. Jung felt that modern humans have been shaped and moulded into their present form by the cumulative experiences of past generations. An individual s 1

29 Centre for Distance Education 6.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University personality is a resultant of inner forces acting upon outer forces and outer forces acting on inner forces. 6.2 Structure of Personality Jung described the total personality or psyche as consisting of a number of different but interacting systems. The main systems are the ego, the personal unconscious, and its complexes, the collective unconscious and its archetypes, the persona, the anima and animus and the shadow The Ego The ego is the conscious mind. It is made up of conscious perceptions, memories, thoughts, and feelings. The ego is responsible for one s feeling of identity and continuity, and from the individual s viewpoint, is considered as being at the centre of consciousness The Personal Unconscious The personal unconscious consists of experiences that were conscious at one time, but have been repressed, suppressed, forgotten or ignored. It also consists of the experiences that were too weak to make an impact on the conscious person. The contents of the personal unconscious are accessible to consciousness, and there is a lot of interaction between the ego and the personal unconscious. Complexes. A complex is an organized group of feelings, thoughts, perceptions and memories that exist in the personal unconscious. The mother complex, for example, consists of ideas, feelings, and memories related to the mother. Thus, an individual whose personality is dominated by the mother is said to have a strong mother complex The Collective Unconscious It is the most powerful and influential system of the psyche (personality) and has the ability to overshadow the ego and the personal unconscious. The collective unconscious is made up of latent memory traces inherited from one s ancestral past. This unconscious is the remainder of human evolutionary development that has accumulated over many generations. It is universal in nature and is detached from anything personal. All human beings have more or less the same collective unconscious. Archetypes. The structural component of the collective unconscious, an archetype is a universal idea that contains a large element of emotion. Archetypes are the images that predispose us to perceive the external world in certain ways. For example, the archetype of mother produces an image of a mother figure that is then identified with the actual mother. The baby s experience is the joint product of an inner predisposition to perceive the world in a certain manner and the actual nature of the world. Some of the archetypes we have in our collective unconscious are birth, power, death, magic, hero, child, God, etc. Some of the important archetypes are: The Persona. This is a mask adopted by the person in response to the demands of social convention and tradition and to his or her own inner needs. It is the role assigned by 2

30 Personality 6.3 Jung s Analytic Theory and Adler s. society and often conceals the real nature of the person. The persona is the public personality which the world sees, while the private personality exists behind the mask. The Anima and Animus. Animus is the masculine side of females and anima is the feminine side of males. These archetypes are the products of racial experiences of man living with woman and vice-versa. The Shadow. This archetype consists of the animal instincts that humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life. The shadow represents the animal side of human nature and is responsible for the unpleasant and socially unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness and behavior. The self. It is the mid-point of personality and all systems are built around it. The self provides the personality with unity, equilibrium and stability. The self is the goal that people constantly strive for, but cannot reach. It motivates human behavior and becomes evident only when a person has reached middle age Introversion-Extraversion Jung also suggested that we are all born with innate tendencies to be concerned mostly with ourselves or with the outside world. The extravert is oriented toward the external, objective world and is open, confident and takes part in many activities. The introverted person is oriented toward the inner, subjective world and is hesitant, cautious and prefers to observe the world than get involved. 6.3 Development of Personality Jung emphasized on the forward going character of personality development - humans are constantly progressing or attempting to progress from a less complete stage of development to a more complete one. What is the goal of development? In Jung s theory, the ultimate goal is self-realization or individuation. Self-realization is the blending of all aspects of a human s total personality. It means that the psyche has evolved into the self in place of the ego Causality vs. Teleology The idea that a goal guides and directs human destiny is the basis of the teleological viewpoint. According to this viewpoint, human personality can be explained in terms of where it is going, not where it has been. It explains the present in terms of the future. On the other hand, the present may be explained by the past. This is the viewpoint of causality which holds that present events are the consequences or effects of antecedent conditions or causes. A look into the person s past will account for his or her present behavior. Jung believed that both standpoints are necessary for a complete understanding of personality. The present is not only determined by the past (causality) but it is also determined by the future (teleology). When the two views are combined, we get a complete picture of the person. 3

31 Centre for Distance Education 6.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University Progression and Regression Development may follow either a progressive forward movement or a regressive, backward movement. By progression, Jung meant the satisfactory adjustment of the conscious ego to the demands of both external environment and the needs of the unconscious. When this progression is thwarted by a frustrating circumstance, the libido is unable to handle the environment, as a result of which, it regresses into the unconscious and indulges in introverted values. The ego loses its objectivity and becomes subjective. However, regression does not necessarily have a permanently bad effect on adjustment. It may help the ego to find a way around the obstacle and move forward again. For example, a young adult, living on his own may face a problem which he is unable to handle by himself. Though he has left his parents, he will still turn to them for help and advise, or rather the parental images in his unconscious The Individuation Process The central feature of Jung s psychology is that personality has a tendency to develop in the direction of a stable unity. The ultimate goal of development is the realization of selfhood. In order to realize this aim it is necessary for all the various systems of personality to be fully developed. A neglected part will offer resistance and sap energy from other developed systems. If too many resistances develop, the person becomes neurotic. This usually happens when archetypes are not allowed to express themselves through the conscious ego, as the persona has smothered the personality. To have a healthy integrated personality, every system must be allowed to reach the fullest degree of differentiation, development and expression. This is known as the individuation process. 6.4 Adler s Individual Psychology Alfred Adler expanded on Freud s theories and formed Individual Psychology. Opposing both Freud s assumption of inborn instincts, and Jung s inborn archetypes as the factors motivating behavior, Adler suggested that humans are motivated primarily by social urges. According to him humans are inherently social beings. His second major contribution was his concept of the creative self. This self is a highly personalized, subjective system that interprets and makes the experiences of the organism meaningful. Thirdly, Adler considered the personality to be unique. Each person is a unique configuration of motives, traits, interests, and values; and each act of the individual has a distinctive style. Lastly, Adler considered consciousness to be the centre of the personality, and considered that humans are conscious and aware of their behavior. Adler s theory of personality consists of the following concepts: striving for superiority, inferiority feelings and compensation, social interest, style of life and the creative self. 4

32 Personality 6.5 Jung s Analytic Theory and Adler s. 6.5 Striving for superiority Superiority denotes a striving for perfect completion. This striving is innate, and is part of life. This striving for superiority carries the person from one stage of development to the other right from birth to death. Each person has his or her own way of achieving or trying to achieve perfection. Adler identified power with masculinity and weakness with femininity. In line with this suggestion, he spoke of masculine protest, a form of overcompensation that both men and women indulge in when they feel inadequate and inferior. Superiority in this context does not mean social distinction, leadership, or an eminent position in society. What causes these various modes of striving to come into the individual? 6.6 Inferiority Feelings and Compensation According to Adler, the causes of the striving for superiority can be traced to inferiority feelings and compensation. Adler observed that a person with a defective organ tries to compensate for the weakness by strengthening it through intensive training. He explained that feeling of inferiority arise from a sense of incompletion or imperfection in any sphere of life. Adler was of the opinion that inferiority feelings are not a sign of abnormality, but are the cause of all improvement in mankind. In other words, human beings are pushed by the need to overcome their inferiority and pulled by the desire to be superior. Perfection, not pleasure, was the goal of life. 6.7 Social Interest Adler believed that social interest is inborn; that humans are social creatures by nature, not by habit. However, social interest can be brought to a culmination only with training and guidance. By definition, social interest consists of the individual helping society to attain the goal of a perfect society. The person is embedded in a social context from the first day of life, and is continuously involved in a network of interpersonal relations that shape the personality and provide outlets for striving for superiority. Striving for superiority becomes socialized, and by working for the common good, humans compensate for their individual weakness. 6.8 Style of Life Style of life is the principle by which the individual personality functions; it is the principle that explains the uniqueness of the person. Everyone has a style of life, but no two people develop the same style. Style of life is formed very early in childhood, and experiences are taken in according to this unique style of life. What determines an individual s style of life? Style of life is a compensation for a particular inferiority; the dull child will strive for intellectual superiority. For example, Napolean s conquering style of life was determined by his slight physical build. Adler however, was not satisfied with this concept, and came up with the concept of creative self. 6.9 The Creative Self The theory of creative self asserts that humans make their own personalities. They construct them out of the raw material of heredity and experience. The creative self is the catalyst which transforms raw data into a personality that is subjective, dynamic, unified, personal, and uniquely stylized. The creative self gives meaning to life and is the goal as well as the means to the goal. It is the active principle of human life, and is unlike the soul. 5

33 Centre for Distance Education 6.6 Acharya Nagarjuna University 6.10 Summary Jung expanded on Freud s concept of the unconscious and described the collective unconscious as consisting of all mankind s common, mythological past. This collective unconscious includes archetypes which give rise to complexes. Jung also identified introversion and extroversion as two types of personality organization. The persona is the mask covering the personality, and anima and animus are unconscious traits possessed by men and women. The ultimate goal is to achieve individuation, and this process continues throughout life. Adler s theory of personality known as individual psychology is an outgrowth of Freudian psychoanalysis. He believed that human beings are motivated basically by social urges. Another driving force of human behavior is striving for superiority. According to Adler, people are pulled by the desire to be superior, and pushed by their need to overcome inferiority. Adler also expounded the concept of the creative self, which, he stated, gives meaning to life Technical Terms collective unconscious archetypes organ inferiority inferiority complex creative self 6.12 Model Questions a shared, common mythological and historical past of all human beings representative images that have universal symbolic meanings any defect in the bodily structure of an individual which can hinder development of self-esteem a sense of weakness and inadequacy that everyone is born with the ability to give meaning and organize personality out of heredity and learning 1. Explain the structure of the personality as described by Jung. 2. What is the main focus of Adler s theory? 3. Explain inferiority complex Reference Books Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. Baron, R. A. (1999). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India. Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 6

34 Personality 7.1 Erikson s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory LESSON - 7 ERIKSON S CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 7.0 Objectives 1. To understand Erikson s psychosexual stages of development of the personality 2. To understand his concept of the creative ego Structure 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The psychosocial stages of development 7.3 Conception of the Ego 7.4 Summary 7.5 Technical Terms 7.6 Model Questions 7.7 Reference Books 7.1 Introduction Erik Erikson s most significant contribution is his formulation of the psychosocial theory of development from which he expanded the conception of the ego. Erikson s view of psychosocial development brings together a number of important ideas for the understanding of personality growth. Building on Freud s psychosexual stages, Erikson added ego development (role of sensorimotor and cognitive capacities), and interpersonal interactions. Thus, he combined the concepts of dynamic motivation, ego functioning and social behavior into a single model of personality development. 7.2 The Psychosocial Theory of Development Development proceeds in eight stages according to Erikson. The first four stages occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage during adolescence, and the last three stages during the adult years up to and including old age. Erikson places particular emphasis on the adolescent period as it is the transition stage between childhood and adulthood. Erikson felt that each child has its own timetable, and thus, it is very difficult to frame a strict chronological schedule. Further, each stage is not passed through, and left behind. Each stage contributes to the formation of the total personality. At each stage, the maturing person faces new and important encounters with his world (developmental tasks) in which his growing abilities are tested. The resolution of each task provides a base for further growth; unsolved developmental crises block further development and may lead to neurotic residuals in the later character structure. Erikson also describes ritualizations that are peculiar to each stage. By this he means a playful, yet culturally determined way of doing or experiencing something in the daily interplay of 1

35 Centre for Distance Education 7.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University individuals. The basic purpose of these ritualizations is to turn the maturing individual into an effective and familiar member of the community. I. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust The earliest trust is established during the oral-sensory stage and is demonstrated by the infant by its capacity to sleep peacefully, take nourishment, and excrete. The infant becomes more familiar with the environment and experiences a sense of feeling good. It identifies situations of comfort and the people associated with this comfort. Because of the infant s trust and familiarity with the mother, it achieves an inner certainty and trust that the mother will be always be around. This is the initial social achievement of the infant. Daily routines, consistency, and continuity in the infant s environment provide the earliest basis for a sense of psychosocial identity. Through continuous experiences with adults, the infant learns to rely on them and trust them; more importantly, it learns to trust itself. This trust must outbalance the negative aspect of trust mistrust, which is essential for human development. The proper ratio of trust and mistrust gives rise to the virtue of hope. The foundation for hope depends on the infant s initial relations with trustworthy parents who are responsive to its needs, who provide nourishment, tranquility and warmth. With each experience, the infant s hope is reinforced and receives inspiration for new hopefulness. The infant also develops the capacity to abandon disappointed hopes and learns what hopes are within the realm of possibility. II. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt During the second stage of life, the anal-muscular stage, the child learns what is expected of it, what its obligations and privileges are and what are the limitations placed on it. The child s striving for new and activity-oriented experiences places a dual demand on it: the demand for self-control, and the demand for acceptance of control from others in the environment. In order to control the child s willfulness, adults use shame on the child as a deterrent, at the same time, they also encourage the child to develop a sense of autonomy and to stand on its own feet. While exercising control, adults must be reassuring. Excessive shamefulness will cause the child to become shameless, or force it to get away with being secretive, sneaky, and sly. This is the stage that promotes freedom of self-expression and lovingness. A sense of self-control acquired in this stage provides the child with a lasting feeling of good will and pride. A sense of loss of control, on the other hand, can cause a lasting feeling of shame and doubt. The virtue of will emerges during this second stage of life. The child learns from itself and from others what is expected and what is acceptable. Will is responsible for the child s gradual acceptance of lawfulness. Will is the ever-increasing strength to make free choices, to decide, to exercise self-restraint, and to apply oneself. III. Initiative vs. Guilt The third psychosocial stage of life is that of initiative a stage of expanding mastery and responsibility. During this stage, the child is more advanced and more together both physically and mentally. Initiative combines with autonomy to give the child the quality of pursuing, planning 2

36 Personality 7.3 Erikson s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory and determination of achieving tasks and goals. The danger of this stage is the feeling of guilt that may haunt the child for being over ambitious in goal-setting, for using manipulative, aggressive means to achieve these goals, and for indulging in genital fantasies. The child is eager to learn, and learns rapidly at this stage. It strives to grow in the sense of obligations and performances. Purpose is the virtue that develops during this developmental stage. The child s major activity at this stage is playing, and a sense of purpose results from playing, exploring, and the child s various attempts and failures. Imaginative and uninhibited play is vitally important to the child s development. IV. Industry vs. Inferiority During the fourth stage of development, the child must control its exuberance and imagination and learn formal education. It develops a sense of industry and learns the rewards of perseverance and diligence. The interest in toys and play is gradually replaced by an interest in productive situations and implements and tools used for work. The child may develop a sense of inferiority or is made to feel inferior if it is unable to master the tasks which it undertakes or which are set for it by teachers and parents. The virtue of competence emerges during the industry stage. Virtues of the previous stages provided the child with a view of future tasks. However, now the child develops sufficient intelligence and capacities for work, and is eager to apply this to work. A sense of competence is achieved by applying oneself to work and to completing tasks, which eventually develops workmanship, without which the child will feel inferior. It is during this stage that the child is eager to learn the techniques of productivity. V. Identity vs. Identity Confusion During adolescence, the individual begins to sense a feeling of his or her own identity a feeling that one is a unique human being and yet ready to fit into some meaningful role in society, whether or not this role is adjusting or innovative. The person becomes aware of individual characteristics such as likes and dislikes, goals of the future, and strength and purpose to control one s own destiny. This is the time of life when a person wishes to define what he or she is at present and what they want to be in the future. This is the time for making vocational plans. The activating agent in identity formation is the ego in its conscious and unconscious aspects. At this stage, the ego has the capacity to select and integrate talents, aptitudes, and skills in identification with like-minded people and in adaptation to the social environment, and to maintain its defenses against threats and anxiety, as it learns to decide what impulses, needs, and roles are most appropriate and effective. All these characteristics are assembled and integrated by the ego to form one s psychosocial identity. Because of the difficult transition from childhood to adulthood, the adolescent during the stage of identity formation, is likely to suffer more deeply than ever before or ever again from a confusion of roles, or identity confusion. This state can cause the adolescent to feel isolated, empty, anxious, and indecisive. The adolescent feels he or she must make important decisions, but is unable to do so. They feel that society is pushing them toward making decisions, and are 3

37 Centre for Distance Education 7.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University deeply concerned about how others view them. They usually display a lot of self-consciousness and embarrassment. During identity confusion, the adolescent may feel he is regressing rather than progressing. His behavior is inconsistent and unpredictable during this chaotic state. The term identity crisis refers to the necessity to resolve the transitory failure to form a stable identity, or a confusion of roles At this adolescent age the virtue of fidelity develops. Although the adolescent is sexually mature and a responsible person in many ways, he or she is not yet adequately prepared to become a parent. The conflict here is that the adolescent is expected to fashion his behavior in the adult pattern of life, and on the other hand, must deny him- or herself the sexual freedom of an adult. There is a constant swing in behavior from impulsive, thoughtless, and sporadic actions to a compulsive restraint. The youth seeks an inner knowledge and understanding of him- or herself and attempts to formulate a set of values. The particular set of values that emerges is what Erikson calls fidelity. Fidelity is the foundation upon which a continuous sense of identity is formed. VI. Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults at this stage in the development process are prepared and willing to unite their identities with others. They seek relationships of intimacy, partnerships and affiliations, and are prepared to develop the necessary strengths to fulfill these commitments despite the sacrifices they may have to make. For the first time in their life, youth can develop true sexual relations with a loved partner. For a sexual relationship to be of lasting social significance it requires someone to love and to have sexual relations with, and with whom one share in a trusting relationship. The hazard of the intimacy stage is isolation, which is the avoidance of relationships because one is unwilling to commit to intimacy. The virtue of love comes into being during the intimacy stage of development. Although love is apparent in the earlier stages, the development of true intimacy transpires only after the age of adolescence. Although a person s individual identity is maintained in a joint intimacy relationship, the person s ego strength is dependent upon the partner who is prepared to share in the rearing of children, productivity, and the ideology of the relationship. VII. Generativity vs. Stagnation The stage of generativity is characterized by the concern with what is generated progeny, products, ideas, and so on and the establishment and setting forth of guidelines for up-coming generations. This transmission of social values is a necessity for both the psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of personality enrichment. When generativity is weak or not given expression, the personality regresses and takes on a sense of impoverishment and stagnation. The virtue of care develops during this stage. Care is expressed by one s concern for others, by wanting to take care of those who need it and to share one s knowledge and experience with them. This is accomplished through childrearing and teaching, demonstrating, and supervising. Caring and teaching are responsible for the survival of cultures, through the 4

38 Personality 7.5 Erikson s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory reiteration of their customs, rituals, and legends. A multitude of experience and knowledge which is accumulated is passed on to others. VIII. Integrity vs. Despair The last stage of the developmental process is called integrity. It can best be described as a state one which reaches after having taken care of things and people, products and ideas, and having adapted to the successes and failures of existence. Through such accomplishments, individuals perceive that their life has some order and meaning within a larger framework. The opposing concept to integrity is despair over the vicissitudes of the individual life cycle, as well as over social and historical conditions and the futileness of existence in the face of death. This can increase the feeling that life is meaningless, that the end is near, a fear of, and a wish for death. Wisdom is the virtue which develops out of the integrity and despair in the last stage of life. Both physical and mental activity slows down at this stage in life, and simple wisdom maintains and conveys the integrity of accumulated experience. Those in the stage of wisdom can represent to younger generations a style of life characterized by wholeness and completeness. This feeling of wholeness can counteract the feeling of despair and disgust. This sense of wholeness also alleviates the feeling of helplessness and dependence that marks the very end of life. 7.3 Conception of the Ego The concept of a defensive ego as conceived by Freud was later modified by succeeding psychoanalysts to include adaptive and integrative functions. The kind of ego that Erikson described may be called the creative ego. The ego can, and does find creative solutions to the new problems that confront it in every stage of life. It uses a combination of inner readiness and outer opportunities. When thwarted, the ego reacts with renewed energy rather than giving up. Erikson felt that the power of recovery is inherent in the ego. The ego usually is the master of the id, the external world and the superego. While being completely aware of the vulnerability of the ego, the defenses it erects, and the consequences of trauma, anxiety and guilt, Erikson noted that the ego is capable of dealing effectively with problems. Erikson s conception of the ego is a very socialized and historical one. In addition to the genetic, physiological and anatomical factors that help to determine the nature of the individual s ego, there are also important cultural and historical influences. Erikson also spoke of the dimensions an ego identity might take. He felt that an identity must be anchored in three aspects of reality: Factuality a universe of facts, data and techniques that can be verified with observational methods and work techniques at that time. Sense of reality also called universality as it combines the practical and concrete in a visionary world image. 5

39 Centre for Distance Education 7.6 Acharya Nagarjuna University Actuality a new way of relating to each other, activating and invigorating each other in the service of common goals. Erikson also added a fourth dimension, luck or chance. He summed up the ego identity by claiming that it would bring into existence a new world image in which a wider sense of common identity would gradually overcome the false beliefs that cause prejudice, discrimination, hate, crime, war, poverty, and enslavement. 7.4 Summary Although he accepted Freud s theory of infantile sexuality, Erikson also emphasized on developmental potentials at all stages of life. He constructed a model of the life cycle consisting of the eight psychosocial stages of development to explain how personality develops throughout the life span. At each stage of the life span, the individual faces some conflict or maturational crisis which he either learns to resolve or does not learn the virtue of that stage. Erikson s stages of development extend into adulthood and old age. 7.5 Technical Terms creative ego identity confusion generativity 7.6 Model Questions a modification of Freud s defensive ego which can find creative solutions to problems a confusion of roles during the transition from childhood to adulthood generation of ideas, concepts, etc. during the seventh stage of development, i.e. late adulthood 1. What are the stages of development as proposed by Erikson? 2. Compare and contrast Freud s psychosexual stages of development with Erikson s psychosocial stages of development. 3. Critically evaluate Erikson s theory. 7.7 Reference Books Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. Baron, R.A. (1999). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India. Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 6

40 Personality 8.1 Type and Trait Approach LESSON Objectives Structure TYPE AND TRAIT APPROACH 1. To learn about Sheldon s typology of personality. 2. To understand the trait theory as put forth by Cattell. 8.1 Sheldon s Type Theory 8.2 Cattell s Trait Theory 8.3 Summary 8.4 Technical Terms 8.5 Model Questions 8.6 Reference Books 8.1. Sheldon s Type theory The type approach has mainly evolved out of the medical sciences. It makes the following assumptions. a. People can be classified into a few categories or types depending on their behaviour patterns. b. These types or categories are qualitatively different from each other. c. The behavioural variations among the different types are stable, describable and even measurable. d. It is possible to relate these behavioural types to constitutional and body characteristics. Sheldon set out with the intention of establishing a relationship between body type and psychological or temperamental types. The human body consists of three layers, the ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm. The ectoderm is the base for the nervous system, the endoderm for the internal organs like the stomach, intestine, etc., and the mesoderm for the muscles. These three layers do not develop equally. In each person one of these develops more than the others. Sheldon started with the idea that people could be classified into body or physique types on the basis of the relative prominence of these three types. He devised ways of making elaborate measurements of these layers. The development of each layer was graded on a seven-point scale, ranging from relatively low development to a very high development. Thus, each individual is assigned a score on each layer ranging from 1 to 7. For example, a person getting a score of has a relatively more prominent ectoderm development compared to the other two layers. Similarly, there are others with prominent endodermic or mesodermic development. Sheldon classified people into three body types ectomorphic where the ectoderm 1

41 Centre for Distance Education 8.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University has developed, mesomorphic where the mesoderm has developed more than the other two, and endomorphic where the endoderm development is maximum. Proceeding further, Sheldon showed that there is a relationship between such body types and temperamental types. According to him an ectomorphic individual tends to be cerebrotonic in temperament. Cerebrotonics are characterized by greater nervous and cerebral activities and are given to activities like thinking, reading, etc, The endomorphic physique was associated with a viscerotonic temperament likely to be more interested in visceral activities like eating and drinking. Lastly, the mesomorphic physique is associated with the somatotonic temperament, being more given to muscular activity. Of course, the above types are not distinct and qualitatively different categories but are distinguishable quantitative variations. Sheldon and his associates went further to study the relationship between such body types and different types of delinquent behaviour Cattell s Trait theory Personality is defined as that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. Cattell has formulated his definition as R = f (s.p), which reads, R, the nature and magnitude of a response, is a function, f, of both environmental situations in which the individual finds himself, s, and his personality, p. According to Cattell, Traits are characterological or relatively permanent feature of personality. Traits are inferred from the individual s behaviour and are of two fundamental kinds: surface traits and source traits. Surface traits are revealed by correlating trait elements or trait indicators, which are essentially behaviour samples that go together. For example, tests or ratings of independence, boldness, alertness, enthusiasm, and energy level tend when correlated to form a cluster reveal the existence of a surface trait of energy, boldness, and spiritedness. By means of such correlation techniques, Cattell found that the hundreds of traits used to describe and measure personality could be reduced to between fifty and sixty nuclear clusters. Traits are described as bi-polar opposites. The assumption is that traits are normally distributed in a continuous manner, with a few individuals showing extreme degrees of the trait and with most people falling in the middle or median range. Source traits represent deeper, stable and more significant aspects of personality and are revealed by the statistical technique of factor analysis. Whereas surface traits are merely descriptive units, the source traits upon which they depend are partly explanatory. Cattell believes that with further research source traits will be found to correspond to the most fundamental influences physiological, temperamental and social that give rise to personality. Cattell has found evidence for the existence of as many as twenty source traits. Source traits may be further categorized according to whether they arise out of the operation of environmental or hereditary influences. Those which result from environmental forces are environmental mold traits, and those which are hereditarily determined are called constitutional traits. Traits may be categorized as dynamic, ability or temperamental. This threefold category refers to the manner in which the trait is expressed. Dynamic traits are concerned with goaldirected behaviour; ability traits with how well or effectively the individual works toward a goal; 2

42 Personality 8.3 Type and Trait Approach and temperamental traits, with the emotional reactivity, speed, or energy with which he or she responds. From the psychological point of view human personality may be considered as an integration of traits. The individual s behaviour as he or she interacts with the environment reflects a relatively large number of surface traits. In any given culture such traits are common to most individuals and can be measured by objective tests and ratings. Central to the problem of dynamics are Cattell s concepts of ergs and metaergs. An erg is a dynamic, constitutional source trait. An erg is an innate psychophysical disposition which permits its possessor to acquire reactivity to certain classes of objects more readily than others, to experience a specific emotion in regard to them, and to start on a course of action, which ceases more completely at a certain specific goal activity than at any other. Goal directed individual is selectively tuned toward certain environmental objects. An ergic pattern carries with it a certain characteristic emotion. The pattern results in a specific type of goal satisfaction. There is an innate preference for certain paths leading to the goal. On the basis of preliminary research, Cattell indicates that sex, self-assertion, fear, gregariousness, parental protectiveness, appeal or self-abasement, play, curiosity, and narcissism are fundamental. A metaerg is like an erg in all respects except that it is an environmental-mold source trait rather than a constitutional source trait. Metaergs are learnt whereas ergs are innate. Cattell considers sentiments as the most important of the various metaergs. Sentiments are major acquired dynamic trait structures, which cause their possessors to pay attention to certain objects or classes of objects, and to feel and react in a certain way with regard to them. Home means first of all the partial satisfaction of the basic ergs such as sex, gregariousness and parental protection. Furthermore one s sentiment toward home is compounded of attitudes and opinions about insurance, marriage, gardening, children, education and so forth. Such an interrelated complex of processes Cattell describes as a dynamic lattice. Attitudes are evolved out of sentiments, and these, in turn, arise out of the fundamental ergs. For example, the sentiment towards one country is developed on the basis of security and protection. The sentiment toward country in turn governs attitudes toward the movies. Cattell s general term for the independence of attitudes, sentiments and ergs is subsidiation. One of the most important sentiments is the self-sentiment, or the ability to contemplate one s self. The self-sentiment is founded on the concept of the self, which Cattell considers to be an integration of the ego and superego. Cattell views the development of the human personality as the unfolding of maturational processes and their modification through learning and experience. Maturation contributes the basic perceptual and motor abilities, whereas learning is responsible for the modification of innate ergs, the elaboration of metaergs and the organization of the self. During the period from conception to puberty, the child s personality undergoes its most significant developmental phases. The years from 1 to 5 are critical for the development of both normal and abnormal traits. Either type of trait remains remarkably constant from 5 until puberty. About the ages of 7 to 8 the child begins to be weaned from parental influence. He or she 3

43 Centre for Distance Education 8.4 Acharya Nagarjuna University acquires the social code of the culture, the dominant trends in interests and characteristic emotional patterns; finally, leader-follower characteristics also begin to appear. Around the age of 10 or 11, secondary groups such as the gang and the school begin to exert as much influence on the developing personality, as does the home. Depending upon the rate of development some children at this age begin to experience the cleavage between home and peer group-approved forms of behaviour. Adolescence is a period that makes great demands on the child. At one and the same time he or she is confronted with the many biological and intellectual changes typical of the period. He or she must adjust to the demands of sex, accompanied as they are by increasing self-assertion, and the same time is under pressure to postpone the satisfaction of sexual needs. He or she must also strive to maintain parent approval in the face of growing independence. The child must attempt to satisfy four different sets of demands, which arise from parents, adolescent peers, adult culture patterns and internal residues of childhood. The period of maturity is one of a gradual but steady decline of most of the biologically based mental processes. The average individual tends to substitute familial for social interests, grows more philosophical and becomes increasingly more stable emotionally. With the onset of old age, new adjustments are demanded as a result of both loss of occupation and the decreased social value of the aged Summary People can be classified into a few categories or types depending on their behaviour patterns. Sheldon stated that people could be classified into body or physique types on the basis of the relative prominence of these three types. Sheldon showed that there is a relationship between such body types and temperamental types. Cattell favored the trait approach. Traits are defined as a characterological or relatively permanent feature of personality. Traits are inferred from the individual s behaviour and are of two fundamental kinds - surface traits and source traits. 8.4 Technical Terms Cerebrotonics Ectoderm Endoderm Mesoderm people characterized by greater nervous and cerebral activities and are given to activities like thinking and reading layer of the body which is the base for the nervous system layer of the body which is the base for the internal organs like the stomach and the intestines layer of the body which is the base for the muscles 4

44 Personality 8.5 Type and Trait Approach Somatotonics Source traits Surface traits Traits Viscerotonics people who are being more given to muscular activity traits that represent deeper, less variable and more significant aspects of personality traits revealed by correlating trait elements or trait indicators, which are essentially behaviour samples that go together characterological or relatively permanent features of personality people who are more interested in visceral activities like eating and drinking 8.7. Model Questions 1. What is a type theory of personality? Illustrate Sheldon s Type Theory of personality. 2. Define traits. Describe Cattell s trait theory. 8.8 Reference Books Parameswaran, E. G., & Bina, C. (2002). An invitation to psychology. New Delhi: Neelkamal. 5

45 Personality 9.1 Eysenck s Biological Trait Theory LESSON - 9 EYSENCK S BIOLOGICAL TRAIT THEORY 9.0. Objectives 1. To understand Eysenck s theory of traits. 2. To understand Eysenck s typology of neuroticism, introversion and extraversion. Structure 9.1 Eysenck s Biological Trait Theory 9.2 Summary 9.3 Technical Terms 9.4 Model Questions 9.5 Reference Books 9.1. Eysenck s Biological Trait Theory According to British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck, personality is largely determined by the genes, and environmental influences play a minimal role. Through conditioning concepts borrowed from behavioural theory, Eysenck theorizes that some people can be conditioned more readily than others because of differences in their physiological functioning. These variations in conditionability are assumed to influence the personality traits that people acquire through conditioning processes. Eysenck views personality structure as a hierarchy of traits, in which many superficial traits are derived from a smaller number of more basic traits, which are further derived from a handful of fundamental higher-order traits. Each one of these characteristics according to Eysenck can be broken down into certain habitual-response patterns that apply to several situations; each of these habitual-response patterns can be broken down further into specific responses within specific situations. This progression from broad, global types down to specific, situation-bound responses is what makes Eysenck s approach a hierarchical theory. Eysenck has focused much of his research on the relationships between two important traits: introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability, the latter otherwise called neuroticism. Carl Jung was first to distinguish between introverts and extraverts. Eysenck added the dimension of neuroticism to introversion-extraversion. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing and active, whereas introverts are withdrawn, quiet, and introspective. Emotionally stable people are calm, even-tempered, and often easygoing, while emotionally unstable people are anxious, excitable, and easily distressed. He has catalogued various personality traits according to where they are situated along these dimensions. For instance, an anxious person would be high both in introversion and in neuroticism that is, preoccupied with his or her own thoughts and emotionally unstable. 1

46 Centre for Distance Education 9.2 Acharya Nagarjuna University Traits which characterize the four personality types postulated by Eysenck Source: Parameswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi: Neelkamal. Eysenck has shown that even learning, perception and other behavioural processes are influenced by these dimensions. Researches by Eysenck and members of his group have further shown that one s behaviour is deeply influenced by one s positions on these dimensions. Eysenck therefore makes the following assumptions: The personalities of individuals are determined by a very limited number of basic dimensions. Each of these dimensions is a continuum ranging from a low value to a high value. Individuals can be placed at appropriate points on each of these dimensions. The personality of a person can be best described in terms of the individual s position on these dimensions. Behaviour is influenced by an interaction of all these dimensions. Eysenck believes that individual variability on the two dimensions may be partly due to differences in nervous system functioning. Eysenck believes that the functioning of the reticular activating system, the brain nucleus involved in sleep and arousal, produces different levels of arousal of the cerebral cortex of introverts and extroverts. He suggests that extroverts have a lower level of cortical arousal than introverts and as a result seek out more stimulation to increase arousal, while introverts are more easily aroused and thus more likely to show emotional instability. This higher arousal in introverts purportedly motivates them to avoid social situations that will further elevate their arousal and makes them more easily conditioned than extraverts. According to Eysenck, people who condition easily acquire more conditioned inhibitions than others. These inhibitions coupled with their relatively high arousal, make them more bashful, tentative, and uneasy in social situations. This social discomfort leads them to turn inward. Hence, they become introverted. Eysenck notes that his scheme is reminiscent of that suggested by Hippocrates, the physician of the Golden Age of Greece. Hippocrates suggested that there are four basic 2