Eating Characteristics and Temperament
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1 Eating Characteristics and Temperament
2 Albert Mehrabian Eating Characteristics and Temperament General Measures and Interrelationships Springer Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo
3 Albert Mehrabian, Ph.D. Department of Psychology University of California Los Angeles, California USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mehrabian, Albert. Eating characteristics and temperament. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Food habits-psychological aspects. 2. Temperament. 3. Personality. I. Title. TX357.M by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1987 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Typeset by Publishers Service, Bozeman, Montana ISBN-13: e-isbn-13: DOl: /
4 Dedicated to Linda
5 Preface Research in the area of eating behaviors has focused mostly on eating disorders. Accordingly, the few psychometrically adequate measures available were developed in reference to eating disorders and were based mostly on data provided by clinically selected subjects who exhibited characteristics of obesity, anorexia, and/or bulimia. Experimental efforts to identify personality correlates of the various eating disorders generally have provided no results or weak and inconsistent patterns of findings across studies. In particular, comparisons of findings from different studies have been difficult to make because of the wide variety of personality measures used. The present studies used a different focus in the study of eating characteristics. New measures of eating-related characteristics were developed using normal samples of SUbjects. One series of studies was designed to identify and measure those aspects of eating behavior in the general population, which when manifested in extreme forms would relate to the phenomena of obesity, anorexia, and bulimia. A second approach focused away from psychopathology and dealt with a broad range and variety of eating behaviors, preferences, and related characteristics that normally occur in the general population. A three-dimensional temperament framework was used to analyze and investigate personality correlates of eating characteristics. The latter framework has been shown to have heuristic value for systematic description of a wide range of personality traits; it thus provided a broad system of measures to assess general individual differences (i.e., personality) and to relate these to individual differences in eating. The present volume is organized into four parts. The first part is an introduction to the temperament framework and the three major dimensions and measures of temperament used in the remainder of the volume. The second part describes three large-scale studies that provided new measures of eating-related characteristics and explored relationships between eating-related characteristics and temperament. The third part deals with contributions of emotion states (as distinct from emotion traits or temperament) to appetite and eating. A general three-dimensional
6 viii Preface framework for the description of emotion states (Mehrabian, 1980) is used to investigate effects of various emotion states on food consumption. In addition, interactions of eating-related characteristics and emotion states in determining appetite and eating also are studied. The fourth part of the present volume contains two appendices. Appendix A contains a full description of the Eating-Related Characteristics Questionnaire (ECQ). It includes descriptions of the various subscales, their scoring, and norms. Appendix B contains the Supplementary Eating-Related Characteristics Questionnaire (SECQ). This questionnaire and its corresponding subscales, scoring, and norms given in Chapter 7, provide investigators with an additional, broader set of measures for the study of individual differences in eating. Several of my students have contributed to the research reported in this volume. I am particularly indebted to Vince Duke, Ilana Nahum, Eric O'Reilly, and Mona Riccioni who have worked with me on projects specifically represented here. I would also like to express my appreciation to the American Psychological Association, Baywood Publishing, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Human Sciences Press, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., and Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain for their kind permissions to use materials from our previous publications. AM Northridge, California
7 Contents Preface Introduction vii xi Part I: The Temperament Framework 1. A Three-Dimensional System for the Measurement of Temperament 3 2. Trait Arousability-An Alternative to Trait Arousal Personality Measures Analyzed in Terms of the Temperament Framework 25 Part II: A Comprehensive Psychometric Analysis of Eating-Related Characteristics 4. Relationships Among Obesity, Anorexia, and Personality Measures in the Literature Preliminary Measures of Obesity and Anorexia: Temperament Correlates Revised and Improved Measures of Eating-Related Characteristics: Temperament Correlates Supplementary Measures of Eating-Related Characteristics: Temperament Correlates 74 Part ill: Effects of Emotion States on Food Consumption 8. The Influence of Emotion States on Appetite and Eating 95
8 x Contents 9. Combined Influences of Emotion States and Individual Characteristics on Appetite and Eating 103 Part IV: Appendices A. Eating-Related Characteristics Questionnaire (ECQ): Scales, Scoring, and Norms B. Supplementary Eating-Related Characteristics Questionnaire (SECQ) References Index of Names Subject Index
9 Introduction The vast majority of studies dealing with obesity or anorexia have sampled from among clients visiting clinics or hospitals because of severe overweight or underweight problems. Despite considerable research interest in identifying personality correlates of such subjects, studies often have produced meager results. Part of the difficulty in assessing the personality correlates of obesity or of anorexia is due to confounding self-selection factors for clinical subjects (e.g., these subjects' weight problems may be only the obvious part of a broader and varied group of problems that brings them to clinics for help). Thus, varied and discrepant problem-related characteristics, or no distinctive characteristics, are identified in comparing such clinical samples with control samples of normal subjects. Secondarily, identifying personality correlates of eating-related characteristics is exacerbated by extraneous social factors that result in frequent and drastic weight fluctuations, particularly among individuals with weight problems. Crash diets, severe exercise regimens, medical intervention, and increased social pressures from mates and relatives or from jobs can all temporarily ameliorate the overweight problem without altering its underlying psychologic and personality correlates. Such fluctuations in weight constitute a source of random error in assessing correlations between weight characteristics and personality variables. An important goal of the present studies was the comprehensive description and measurement of individual characteristics relating to food consumption. The latter encompassed a broad range of behaviors and included self-reports of amounts of food consumed, necessity of dieting and exercise to reduce weight, appetite, being picky or unable to eat major categories of food items, loss of control over eating, frequency of hunger, frequent or easy temptation by food, binge eating, vomiting, eating style (e.g., fast, large bites, playing with food on plate), weight gain, weight consciousness, social pressure to eat more, and feelings of anxiety or distress in association with eating. Existing measures for anorectic, bulimic, or obese characteristics (e.g., Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983; Hawkins & Clement, 1980; Herman & Polivy, 1980; Piazza, Rollins, & Lewis, 1983) were developed in reference to criterion groups of clinically diagnosed subjects. Although the latter measures sometimes have been used with normal subjects, the major
10 xii Introduction objective has been their use for diagnosis of eating disorders requiring clinical intervention. Moreover, several of the measures included subscales that did not deal with eating behaviors but dealt instead with general psychologic characteristics (e.g., the Interoceptive Awareness, Ineffectiveness, Maturity Fears, Perfectionism, and Interpersonal Distrust subscales of the Garner et al., 1983, inventory). The present thesis was that study of interrelationships among eating-related characteristics in the general population and relationships between these and temperament (i.e., a variant of personality) traits required measures designed specifically for that population. First, then, the present measures differed from existing ones in that they were developed specifically with reference to the general population so as to characterize common or normal as well as more extreme patterns of behavior associated with eating. Second, the measures were based on eating-related behaviors and did not include individual characteristics that traditionally are dealt with in the personality measurement area. Because eating disorders are more common among women than among men (e.g., Button & Whitehouse, 1981; Halmi, Falk, & Schwartz, 1981), investigations of eating and related characteristics have focused mostly on the female segment of the population. A third distinguishing characteristic of the present measures was that they were designed to assess eating-related characteristics in men as well as in women. A fourth distinctive quality of the present approach was its use of a comprehensive framework of temperament description and measurement that permitted comparisons of results for various personality measures used in the literature. Mehrabian (1980, Chapters 4 to 7) proposed a general three-dimensional system for the description of temperament and showed its heuristic value for the systematic description of a wide range of personality measures. The three orthogonal axes of this temperament space are trait pleasure-displeasure, trait arousability (i.e., larger arousal response and slower habituation of arousal to unusual, complex, or changing stimuli), and trait dominance-submissiveness. Personality types are described in terms of their locations (as points) in this space. Personality dimensions and corresponding measures constitute lines drawn through the intersection of the three axes. To develop a shorthand taxonomy, each axis of the temperament space is dichotomized, resulting in octants. Opposing octants in the space are labeled as follows: exuberant (pleasant, arousable, dominant) versus bored (unpleasant, unarousable, submissive); dependent (pleasant, arousable, submissive) versus disdainful (unpleasant, unarousable, dominant); relaxed (pleasant, unarousable, dominant) versus anxious (unpleasant, arousable, submissive); and docile (pleasant, unarousable, submissive) versus hostile (unpleasant, arousable, dominant). Thus, for example, extroverts or arousal seekers, and exhibitionistic, afftliative, or nurturing individuals are all exuberant types, differing from each other in terms of the relative weightings of pleasantness, arousabi)ity, and dominance. Specifically, the extroversion scale (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968) has regression coefficients of
11 Introduction xiii +.21, +.17, and +.50 on trait pleasure, trait arousability, and trait dominance, respectively (Mehrabian & O'Reilly, 1980, equation 1). A similar pattern of positive regression coefficients is obtained for Jackson's (1967) play and affiliation scales and for Mehrabian's (1978b) arousal-seeking scale (Mehrabian & O'Reilly, 1980). Neurotic, anxious, and harm-avoidant persons are in the anxious octant. For example, the Eysenck and Eysenck (1968) neuroticism scale has regression coefficients of -.26, +.49, and -.25 on trait pleasure, trait arousability, and trait dominance, respectively (Mehrabian & O'Reilly, 1980, equation 13); the Speilberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene (1970) trait anxiety measure has corresponding coefficients of -.43, +.29, and -.37, respectively (Mehrabian & O'Reilly, 1980, equation 14). Autonomous persons (Jackson, 1967) are in the disdainful octant, whereas succorant individuals (Jackson, 1967) are in the dependent octant. Most importantly, the four octants associated with trait pleasure define four distinctive, normal personality types; those associated with trait displeasure define four abnormal personality types. The latter temperament framework provided a comprehensive description of individual differences and allowed the investigation of eating-related characteristics and individual differences within studies of manageable size.!!this introduction contains segments taken from Mehrabian, A., Nahum, I.V., & Duke, V. (1986). Individual difference correlates and measures of predisposition to obesity and to anorexia. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 5, Copyright Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.; reproduced with permission. This introduction also contains segments taken from Mehrabian, A., & Riccioni, M. (1986). Measures of eating-related characteristics for the general population: Relationships with temperament. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, Copyright 1986, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.; reproduced with permission.
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