The Social Psychology of Sport

Transcription

1 The Social Psychology of Sport

2 Gordon W. Russell The Social Psychology of Sport With 20 Figures Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

3 Gordon W. Russell Department of Psychology University of Lethbridge Lethbridge, Alberta Canada TlK 3M4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Russell, Gordon W., The social psychology of sport/gordon W. Russell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and indexes. ISBN 978'0'387'97792'8 ISBN 978'1'4615'8063'8 (ebook) DOl / _ Sports - Psychological aspects_ 2. Social psychology. L Title. GV706.4.R '.01-dc Printed on acid-free paper Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the 'D"ade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Production managed by Francine McNeill; manufacturing supervised by Vincent Scelta. Camera-ready copy prepared using WriteNow ISBN

4 To Audrey and to the Memory of my Parents

5 Preface This book is written from the perspective of a social psychologist. As a consequence, the topics covered in the upcoming chapters were chosen from among those traditionally of interest to the discipline of social psychology. A criterion for inclusion was the topic's usefulness in providing insights and/or understanding ofthe social processes at work in sports settings. To this end, I have drawn extensively from mainstream journals in social psychology (e.g., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology), and grounded the discussion of topics and issues on the methodologically sound studies/experiments they generally provide. There is also an equally strong interdisciplinary emphasis that features research from physical education, sociology, management science, and education. I have made a further attempt, not as successful as I would have liked, to incorporate a substantial amount of the fine sports research that has been conducted overseas, particularly in Europe and Australia. I am hopeful that in bringing together the works of international scholars from a variety of disciplines a clearer and balanced outline of this field will take shape. And now a word about the audience for this text and how to get the most from its pages. I would suggest that the reader have taken a course in social psychology following an introductory-level course. An introductory course in research methodology would also be helpful. As regards statistics, I have provided a brief review of the correlational method that underlies many of the findings reported on the pages to follow. You may wish to leap ahead to the section in Chapter 7 entitled "A Crash Course on Correlation" (pp ). In short, the more background the students have along the lines of these courses, the more they can expect to derive from the book and the references they are encouraged to pursue. Of course, senior undergraduates and graduate students in the social sciences, the best prepared of all, stand to benefit the most and, indeed, were my focus in writing this text. Next, a few words about the overall organization of this book. The first six chapters deal with topics that have a direct or indirect bearing on athletic performance. Thereafter, questions related to interpersonal and collective aggression begin to receive more attention. The basic data and theory of social psychology are woven throughout the development of these themes. The opening chapter begins with a review of several of the leading theories of motivation that provide some understanding of the bases for our initial choice and persistence in a sport. A number of the major theories or models having implication specifically for athletic performance are described against the background of sports research in Chapters 2 and 3. Chapters 4 to 6 examine our behaviors in groups and the influence that leaders and those who serve as exemplars have on our activities. The themes of performance and aggression are bridged by Chapter 7, on personality. The remaining chapters deal with one of the more troubling aspects of sport, interpersonal aggression. Chapter 8 provides an overview of the topic of aggression in considering its measurement, theoretical views, and basic findings derived from sports settings. The popular belief in catharsis (i.e., that sports serve as a

6 viii Preface "safety valve" for pent-up aggressive urges) is reviewed in Chapter 9, both with respect to its historical origins and the evidence that bears on the validity of the concept. In the concluding chapter, sports crowds are examined in regard to their composition and behavior at sports events, in particular, their behavior on those occasions when collective actions (e.g., panics, riots) have tragic consequences. While I am reluctant to burden you with matters of definition, my overly generous use of the term sports should be acknowledged at the outset. Although several theorists have undertaken the formidable task of providing a formal definition of sports (e.g., Loy, McPherson, & Kenyon, 1978), I have chosen instead to throw a wider-than-usual net in my selection of studies, one that encompasses the likes of professional wrestling, aerobatic flying, cheerleading, nail hammering, chess, and horse racing. Admittedly, some of these would be better described as entertainment, games, or leisure activities rather than as sport. The organization of this book includes three special features, the first of which is intended to offer an occasional diversion. Most chapters contain one or more boxes entitled "Speaking Tangentially." These showcase intriguing research findings that are an offshoot of the topic being discussed on nearby pages. It is my hope that they will challenge a number of your assumptions and/or sufficiently pique your interest to pursue the issues they raise. The second feature is an index of sports mentioned throughout the text. The listing is restricted to those sports that researchers used in a substantive way as the setting for their studies. While it is always interesting to see the ways in which our favorite sport(s) has (have) contributed to research, it is additionally interesting to note how certain sports, because of their structure or the sorts of people they attract, have provided ideal opportunities for testing sports-related theory. The third feature is a selection of suggested readings that appears at the end of each chapter. Entries have been carefully chosen to represent state-of-the-art reviews of a topic or to introduce several thought-provoking works and to provide examples of the best in investigative techniques. Writing a text is anything but a solo undertaking. Others offer suggestions, give criticism, and bring obscure references to an author's attention. All of this help plays a major part in shaping the final form of a manuscript. My greatest debt is to the legions of colleagues in the social sciences whose fine work I have been privileged to cite. Their work has formed the foundation for this book and has allowed me to provide the reader with more facts and fewer speculations than might otherwise have been the case. Also important is the ongoing feedback I have received from students over a period of several years. Their detailed knowledge of contemporary sports has kept me in constant touch with the real world of sports. Incidentally, let me say that I am a good listener. I would welcome and be pleased to reply to any comments, suggestions, or criticisms that you would care to bring to my attention. I wish also to single out a number of friends and colleagues for special thanks for their willingness to review individual chapters of the manuscript. In this regard, I am grateful to Robert Barney, Ivan Kelly, Chris Knapper, Professor Whimsy, and Neil Widmeyer. Others undertook even more extensive critiques

7 Preface ix that covered major portions of the book. I am deeply indebted to Susan Butt, Peter Mudrack, Raymond Novaco, and Garry Smith for the Herculean efforts on my behalf. The final tip of my cap is to my wife, Audrey, and our children, Shelley and Cameron, for their continuing support and encouragement. Their patience with my Type A behaviors exceeded what I had any right to expect. Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada Gordon W. Russell

8 Contents Preface Chapter 1 Motivation: The Why of Behavior The Need Hierarchy Theory ERG Theory Need for Achievement ("n" Ach.) Equity Theory Cognitive Evaluation Theory The Stress Seekers Sensation Seeking Chapter 2 Performance and Social Influence The Relative Age Effect The Role of Expectations A Theory of Social Impact The Home (Field) Advantage An Exception Crowd Size and Performance Summary Chapter 3 Social Theory and Performance Attribution Theory The Value of a Wooden Leg: Self-Handicapping Strategies Excuses, Excuses! Sel f-efficacy Chapter 4 Group Dynamics Group Cohesion Loyalty Social Loafing: When = 3 Competition Versus Cooperation vii

9 xii Contents Chapter 5 Leadership Definitions Three Approaches to Leadership Theories of Leadership Issues in Sports Leadership When the Going Gets Tough, the Complex Get Going Leadership Preferences Summary Chapter 6 Sports Heroes: An Extension of Leadership The Impact of Heroes Heroes as Leaders The Functions of Exemplars Trends and Category Importance A Question of Quality Correlates of Hero Selection The Response of Admirers Again, the Question of Quality Chapter 7 Personality A Matter of Definition Measurement of Personality Tests Social Personality Models A 'TYpology of Violent Males Chapter 8 Sports Aggression Historical Trends The Definition and Measurement of Aggression Theoretical Background Interpersonal Aggression Situational Determinants Drugs and Aggression Environmental Influences Coping Strategies

10 Contents xiii Chapter 9 Catharsis Through Sports: Fact or Fiction? Those Who Believe Roots of Catharsis Catharsis: One on One Catharsis in the Stands Spectatorship Through the Electronic Media Chapter 10 Spectatorship and Crowd Behavior Motives for Attendance Crowd Composition The Spectator Experience Panics Riots Summary References Author Index Subject Index Sports Index