8/17/2012. Self-Concept Video. Cultural Differences in Defining the Self. Chapter 5. The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context

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1 Chapter 5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context Slides prepared by JoNell Strough, Ph.D. & Philip Lemaster, M.A. West Virginia University Self-Concept Video Click on the screenshot and listen to how this teenage girl discusses her self-concept in terms of both concrete characteristics and an awareness of how she is viewed by others. Back to Directory Cultural Differences in Defining the Self The squeaky wheel gets the grease. American proverb The nail that stands out gets pounded down. Japanese proverb 1

2 Independent View of the Self In many Western cultures, people have an independent view of the self. Independent view of the self A way of defining oneself in terms of one s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people. Independent View of the Self Westerners Define themselves as separate from other people Value independence and uniqueness Interdependent View of the Self Many Asian and other non-western cultures have an interdependent view of the self. Interdependent view of the self A way of defining oneself in terms of one s relationships to other people; recognizing that one s behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. 2

3 Culture and Self-Conception Video Click on the screenshot to watch Dr. Kitiyama discuss differences in selfconception in Eastern and Western cultures. Back to Directory Interdependent View of the Self Connectedness and interdependence valued Independence and uniqueness are frowned upon Cultural Differences in Defining the Self Not all Westerners are independent! Not all Easterners are interdependent! Within cultures, there are differences in the self-concept. 3

4 Gender Differences in Defining the Self Gender stereotypes Women talk about interpersonal problems and relationships. Men talk about anything but their feelings (usually sports). Gender and the Development of the Self Starting in early childhood, American girls are more likely to: Develop intimate friendships. Cooperate with others. Focus their attention on social relationships. Boys are more likely to focus on their group memberships. Gender and Interdependence Women Relational interdependence Focus on their close relationships Men Collective interdependence Focus on their memberships in larger groups 4

5 Gender Similarities or Differences? Psychologically, men and women are much more similar than different Relative differences in the way women and men define themselves in the USA Women have a greater sense of relational interdependence than men Knowing Ourselves through Introspection Introspection The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives. Knowing Ourselves through Introspection 1. People do not rely on introspection very often. 2. Reasons for feelings and behavior can be outside conscious awareness. 5

6 Focusing on the Self Amount of time people spend thinking about themselves has increased in recent years. Archival analysis of song lyrics Use of first person singular pronouns increased from 1980 to 2007 Self-Awareness Theory The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values. Figure 5.3 Self-Awareness Theory: The Consequences of Self-Focused Attention When people focus on themselves, they compare their behavior to their internal standards.(adapted from Carver & Scheier, 1981) 6

7 Self-Awareness Theory Sometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the self. Focusing on the self can be very aversive. Ways to turn off internal spotlight on oneself: Alcohol abuse Binge eating Sexual masochism Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we do. What is it about your sweetheart that made you fall in love? How much does sleep affect your state of mind? What really determines what mood you re in? Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know However, we believe we can know reasons for our feelings We tell more than we can know Overlook reasons that are difficult to verbalize 7

8 Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know Causal Theories Theories about the causes of one s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture. Problem Schemas and theories are not always correct. Can lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our actions. The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Reasons-Generated Attitude Change Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one s attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize. The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Problem 1. May bring to mind reasons that are not accurate, but are easy to verbalize 2. Convince self into believing that attitude matches the easy to verbalize reasons 8

9 The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Reasons-generated attitude could lead to regret when hard to verbalize original reasons for attitude returns Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Self-Perception Theory The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs. Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Infer inner feelings from behavior Only when not sure how we feel People judge whether their behavior Really reflects how we feel Or the situation that made us act that way 9

10 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures. Extrinsic Motivation The desire to engage in an activity because of external reasons, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting. Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation We have to consider the effects of rewards on people s thoughts about: Themselves Their self-concept Their motivation to read in the future Danger of reward programs Reading for rewards, not because it s actually enjoyable Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation Overjustification Effect The tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons. 10

11 Preserving Intrinsic Interest Task-contingent rewards Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done. Performance-contingent rewards Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task. Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Stanley Schachter (1964) Experience of emotion is similar to other types of self-perception Infer our emotions by observing our behavior We experience emotions in a two-step selfperception process: Experience physiological arousal. Seek an appropriate explanation for it. Figure 5.5 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion People first experience physiological arousal and then attach an explanation to it. 11

12 Finding the Wrong Cause Misattribution of Arousal Misattribution of Arousal The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone). Mindsets Understanding Our Abilities Fixed mindset Idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change Growth mindset Idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow Using Other People to Know Ourselves Social contact is crucial to the development of a self-concept. How do we use others to define ourselves? Measure our own abilities and attitudes by comparing to other people. 12

13 Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views Social Comparison Theory The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people. The theory revolves around two important questions: 1. When do you engage in social comparison? 2. With whom do you choose to compare yourself? Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views 1. When do you engage in social comparison? No objective standard exists to measure against When we experience uncertainty Example New office donation program, not sure what amount would be generous, you are especially likely to compare yourself to others. Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views 2. With whom do you choose to compare yourself? Initial impulse anyone who is around Occurs quickly and automatically 13

14 Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views Goal Know the furthest level to which we can aspire upward social comparison: Comparing to people who are better on a particular ability. Goal feel better about yourself downward social comparison: Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability. Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views We adopt other people s views in some circumstances Looking glass self (Cooley, 1902) We see ourselves and the social world through the eyes of other people Adopt other s views when want to get along with them Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People s Views Social Tuning The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes. 14

15 Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self Self-Control Making choices about present and plans for the future Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self Thought suppression Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget Not that efficient! Self-Regulatory Resource Model Views self-control as a limited resource Like a muscle that gets tired with frequent use Rebounds in strength with practice To increase self-control Practice exerting self-control Set behavioral intentions 15

16 Impression Management: All the World s a Stage Impression Management The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen. Impression Management Strategies Ingratiation Flattering, praising, and generally trying to make ourselves likable to another person, often of higher status Self-handicapping Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves If we do poorly on a task, we can avoid blaming ourselves Impression Management Strategies Self-handicapping Behavioral self-handicapping Example: pulling an all-nighter before a test. Reported self-handicapping Example: complaining about not feeling well when you take a test. 16

17 Culture and Impression Management Culturally Universal Desire to manage image we present Cultural Differences Kinds of images we want to present E.g., Saving face is important in Asian cultures Self-Esteem: How We Feel about Ourselves Self-Esteem Overall evaluation (positive or negative) that people have of themselves High self-esteem Protective function Motivational function Self-Esteem: How We Feel about Ourselves Terror management theory High self-esteem buffers against thoughts of death 17

18 Self-Esteem: How We Feel about Ourselves Narcissism Combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others Has increased in college students since the 1980s Summary and Review The Self Functions and Definitions Sources of Self Knowledge Introspection Self-Perception Social Interaction Self-Presentation 18