How coping resource reduces athletes burnout in sport settings: The mediating role of life stress

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1 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期體育學報中華民國體育學會第 48 卷第 3 期, 頁 251~264 ( ) 競技運動中的因應資源 : 選手壓力與倦怠 251 DOI: / How coping resource reduces athletes burnout in sport settings: The mediating role of life stress Erica Ting-Wen Wang 1, Wei-Ping Lee 1, and Frank Jing-Horng Lu 2 1 Graduate Institute of Physical Education, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan 2 Department of Physical Education, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan Abstract Introduction: In the sporting context, athletic burnout is an imperative issue concerned by many researchers and sport-related personnel. Notably, college student-athletes are a unique population that requires special attention as they might experience stress and develop burnout if they do not have the coping resources to deal with both academic and sport demands. It has been generally accepted that seeking social support is a form of coping strategy when athletes are faced with competitive pressure (Crocker, 1992) or in a poor performance phase (Madden, Kirkby, & McDonald, 1989). When athletes are stressed, the social support provided by athletes significant others can reduce or lower the negative effects of stress, however limited studies examined the mechanism of how social support influences athlete burnout. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether social support have life stress-mediated influences on athletes burnout. Methods: A total of 244 (74 females, 170 males) Division A college student-athletes representing six different sports (tennis, taekwondo, track and field, archery, basketball, baseball) were recruited (M age = 19.98, SD = 1.37). All participants voluntarily completed the Student-Athletes Social Support Scale, College Student-Athletes Life Stress Scale (CSALSS), and Athletes Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Preliminary analyses were conducted using SPSS 18.0 and mediation analyses were conducted using Mplus 7.0 statistical software with structural equation modeling. Results: (a) All types of social support negatively predicted sport life stress and burnout; (b) Daily and sport life stress positively predicted burnout; (c) Daily life stress did not have mediating influence on the relationship between any types of social support and burnout; (d) Sport life stress fully mediated the relationship between all types of social support and burnout. Conclusion: In order to effectively prevent athletes from burning out, coaches, trainers, or related competitive sport personnel should understand the type of stressors that causes athletes burnout before providing athletes with the appropriate social support required. Key words: social support, student-athletes, overtraining 通訊作者 : 盧俊宏中國文化大學體育學系 111 臺北市陽明山華岡路 55 號 TEL: frankjlu@gmail.com

2 252 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 Introduction Being a college student-athlete is not a simple commitment as one has to deal with stressors not only from his/her sports (e.g., injuries, coach-athlete relationship, immense time and energy demands from daily training/ competition, winning/losing pressures) but other daily life stressors (e.g., academic demands, inter-personal relationships) as well, unlike other college students who only have to handle mostly academic and daily life stressors (Galli & Reel, 2012; Johnson & Ivarsson, 2011; Lu, Hsu, Chan, Cheen, & Kao, 2012; Yusko, Buckman, White, & Pandina, 2008). Stress can be defined as an experience when people perceive situational demands to exceed their coping resources (Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, 1997). In other words, individuals generally experience stress if their coping resources are not adequate to deal with the situational demands they perceive. Tamminen, Holt, and Neely (2012) found that chronic stress are most likely to bring about negative experiences like eating disorder, feelings of isolation or withdrawal, performance slump, and sexual abuse that could affect student-athletes life. Athlete burnout is one of the negative occurrences that have received increasing research interest (Gustafsson, Kenttä, & Hassmén, 2011; Lu, Chen, & Cho, 2006). Pertaining to the negative consequences of chronic stress in the sporting context, Smith (1986) proposed a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout explaining that burnout is the final consequence of chronic stress caused by environmental demands if individuals perceive that they do not have the ability or coping resources to deal with the exceeding demands. Another stress-burnout model based on coaches proposed by Kelley and Gill (1993) is conceptually similar to Smith s (1986) as both models suggest that burnout in the sporting context is stress related. Some researchers postulate that the development of burnout may be contributed by an athlete s inability to cope with demands from the emotional, physiological, and psychological stresses they experience (Gustafsson et al., 2011; Raedeke & Smith, 2004). Given that the aforementioned studies highlighted the negative consequences of burnout, it is vital to gain more knowledge regarding the precursor and mediating factors associated with burnout (Gustafsson, Skoog, Podlog, Lundqvist, & Wagnsson, 2013). Raedeke and Smith (2004) found that coping behaviors and social support satisfaction had an indirect stress-mediated relationship with burnout. Stress researchers suggested that single stressors are not causes of ill-health; instead it depends on the interaction between the individual and environment that leads one to perceive the situation as a threat or not (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Thus, the appraisal of potential stressful problems plays an important role in the stress process (Gustafsson & Skoog, 2012). As mentioned previously, individuals will experience stress and eventually burnout if their coping resources fail to meet the situational demands they perceive; thus theoretically coping resources should influence burnout through stress. Williams (2001, p. 774) postulate that coping resources comprise a wide variety of behaviors and social networks that aid the individual in dealing with problems, joys, disappointments, and stresses of life. Social support can be considered as an external resource that helps individuals cope with stressors or demands (Raedeke & Smith, 2004; Liang, 2005). According to Williams (2001), social

3 競技運動中的因應資源 : 選手壓力與倦怠 253 support in sport context comprises of the presence of others whom athletes can rely on and whom they know value and care for them. Empirical studies in sports revealed that athletes with high social support perceive lower stress and displayed better performance (Rees, Hardy, & Freeman, 2007). It has been generally accepted that seeking social support is a form of coping strategy when individuals are faced with competitive pressure (Crocker, 1992) or in a poor performance phase (Madden et al., 1989). According to Wheaton (1985), there are two different models to explain the effects of social support. The main effects hypothesis states that perceived social support is a situational or environmental condition that reduces the possibility of an individual appraising an event as stressful (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Sarason, Pierce, & Sarason, 1990). Second, the stress-buffering model (indirect effect) proposed that received social support is viewed as a coping resource that helps individuals manage the negative effects of stress (Bianco & Eklund, 2001). There are different types of social support namely emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible support (Rees & Hardy, 2000). Athletes sources of social support are mainly provided by their significant others which include coaches, parents, and teammates (peers). According to Smith (1986), social support is one of the influencing factors which determine if an individual develops burnout or not. Further, increased social support reduces emotional and physical exhaustion that may positively affect overall functioning (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996) which is one of the burnout dimensions. Among the few studies that examined coaches behavior and athlete burnout, Altahayneh (2003) found that the social support dimension of coaches behavior is negatively associated with athlete burnout. Another research reported that lower levels of athlete burnout were associated with coaches providing support, belief in athletes, empathy, and instructions (Udry et al., 1997). In addition, Price and Weiss (2000) found that when athletes perceived that their coaches are giving less social support, it was related to athletes who are experiencing high levels of burnout. Nevertheless, few studies have examined the mechanism influencing the relationship between perceived coaches social support and college student-athletes burnout. Despite the aforementioned studies proposed that social support provided by significant others such as parents, coaches, and peers can affect an individual s attitude and behavior in sports participation, many studies have highlighted the importance of a coach in inducing and sustaining sport/exercise participation (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005; Weinberg & Gould, 2012). Thus, the perceived social support provided by coaches might be able to lower college student-athletes stress and in turn lower their burnout. In sport settings, early studies examined stress and burnout according to Smith s (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout, focused mainly on the effect of coping behaviors on stress and burnout. More specifically, Kelley and colleagues (Kelley, 1994; Kelley, Eklund, & Ritter-Taylor, 1999; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Martin, Kelley, & Eklund, 1999) examined the indirect stress-mediated effect between personal/ situational factors and burnout based on Smith s model. Their findings revealed that factors such as hardiness, leadership style, social support, and trait anxiety have both direct effects and indirect stress-mediated effects on athletic directors and coaches burnout. For instance, Kelley (1994) found that social support had indirect stress-mediated influence on collegiate coaches burnout. In addition, Raedeke

4 254 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 and Smith (2004) conducted a study based on swimmers; findings revealed that social support and perceived stress are negatively correlated while perceived stress and burnout are positively correlated. They further examined both the indirect stress- mediated effect of coping behaviors, social support, and burnout, as well as the disjunctive and conjunctive moderating effects on coping behaviors and social support on the stress-burnout relationship. However, only global social support and coping behavior had indirect stress-mediated relationship with global athlete burnout. Raedeke and Smith (2004) further proposed that social support did not have an indirect stress-mediated relationship with specific burnout dimensions may be due to the sources and type of social support that they did not examine. Despite studies have proven the mediating effect of stress, research examining the indirect stress-mediated effect remains scarce (Caccese & Mayerberg, 1984) and few studies have examined stress as a mechanism in athlete burnout (Gustafsson et al., 2013). In the few studies that examined the indirect stress-mediated relationship of personal/situational factors with burnout, most of which assessed participants global perceived stress (Gustafsson & Skoog, 2012; Gustafsson et al., 2013; Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley et al., 1999; Nikolaos, 2012; Raedeke & Smith, 2004), however, according to recent research based on college student-athletes life stress, Lu and colleagues (2012) classified life stress faced by college student-athletes into daily and sport specific life stress. Maslach and colleagues (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001) stressed that the most prominent causes of the development of burnout are contextual factors, thus knowledge and an understanding of the elite sport context and stressors encountered by athletes must be considered. By examining both daily and sport-related life stress of college student-athletes rather than just their global perceived stress, it would be able to provide a further insight on which or both type of life stress influences the burnout of college student-athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to find whether different types of life stress experienced by college student-athletes would mediate the relationship between perceived coaches social support and athlete burnout. Participants Method A total of 244 Division A college student-athletes (females = 74, males = 170) were recruited from three universities in northern Taiwan to participate in this study. The age range of participants ranged from 18 to 25 (M = 19.98, SD = 1.37). Participants represented six individual (n = 162) and team (n = 82) sports (i.e., archery, baseball, basketball, taekwondo, tennis, track and field). Participants trained for an average of 4.24 hours (SD = 1.17) per day, 5.36 days (SD = 1.17) per week, and 8.91 years (SD = 2.88) of participation. Procedure and Instruments Sports team head coaches from three universities were contacted to obtain permission for conducting a study with their student-athletes. The purpose of the study was explained to each team s head coach before obtaining their consent. After the head coaches agreed and allowed their team to participate in this study, date and times were arranged to administer the instruments of the study to different sport teams. Prior to administration, the coaches were kindly requested to leave the venue before the researcher briefly

5 競技運動中的因應資源 : 選手壓力與倦怠 255 informed the participants on the purpose of the study, instructions for responding the questionnaires, assured of confidentiality, and participation is voluntary. Administrations of questionnaires were before or after each sport teams training session at their training venue. A total of 280 questionnaires were administered with a return rate of 275 (98.2%). Data screening resulted in 244 valid questionnaires. College Student-Athlete Life Stress Scale. The College Student-Athlete Life Stress Scale (CSALSS; Lu et al., 2012) was developed to measure the daily stressors and sport stressors experience by college student-athletes. The CSALSS is a 24-item, self-reported instrument that elicit participants to rate how often they are worried about each item. Respondents would rate each item on a 6-point Likert scale of 1 (Never) to 6 (Always). This scale consist of eight subscales that taps two main domains of stressors; daily stressors (i.e., academic requirements, family relationships, interpersonal relationships, romantic relationships) and sport stressors (i.e., coach relationships, performance demand, sports injury, training adaptation). The generic stem for the CSALSS was I am worried about and some of the example items are: being injured frequently, my academic, and my unstable competition performance. Internal consistency of daily life stress ( =.81) and sport life stress was good ( =.83). Social Support Scale for Student-Athletes. The Social Support Scale for Student-Athletes (Pan, 2008) measures five types of social support received from three groups of significant others (i.e., coaches, parents, peers). However, for this study only the coach subscale was administered. There are a total of 22 items measuring five types of social support namely: emotional support (5-item), esteem support (6-item), informational support (5-item), other tangible support (3-item), and training tangible support (3-item). For each item, participants are required to response to a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The stem for each item was shortened into When I am face with a problem, my coach would Example items from each subscale includes: will make me happy (emotional support), will encourage me (esteem support), will provide me with some technical advice (informational), will help me arrange training and competition schedule (training tangible), will provide me with transportation (other tangible support). The scale provided good internal consistency ranging from =.84 to.97. Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Burnout was assessed using the Chinese version 11-item Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, translated and validated by Lu, Chen et al. (2006) from the original 15-item Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001) which was designed to measure athletes burnout symptoms. The revised Chinese version of ABQ comprised of emotional or physical exhaustion (4-item), reduced sense of accomplishment (3-item), and sport devaluation (4-item). This study used the overall score for data analyses. The stem for each item is, How do you currently feel about your participation in your sport? The Chinese version ABQ was evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale of 1 (Never) to 5 (Always). The scale provided evidence of reliability with acceptable internal consistency ( =.88). Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis, Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficients, and Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated with SPSS 18.0, after all data were screened and coded.

6 256 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 Structural equation modeling was used to examine the stress-mediation hypothesis and 12 of the structural models were tested with Mplus 7.0 statistical software (Muthén & Muthén, 2012). The aggregate of social support s five subscales (i.e., emotional, esteem, informational, other tangible, training tangible), daily life stress s four subscales (i.e., academic requirements, family relationships, interpersonal relationships, romantic relationships), sport life stress s four subscales (i.e., coach relationships, performance demand, sports injury, training adaptation), and athlete burnout s three subscales (i.e., emotional/ physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, sport devaluation) were used as observed indicators of the global social support, global daily life stress, sport life stress, and global athlete burnout latent variables. In addition, items scores of each social support subscale served as observed indicators for the analyses examining each type of social support latent variable. Each mediator variable (i.e., daily and sport life stress) was conducted six times with the global social support index and each of the five types of support (i.e., emotional, esteem, informational, other tangible, training tangible), and athlete burnout as the dependant variable. Typically, bootstrap ranging from 1000 to 5000 is recommended (Hayes, 2009), while some researchers suggest a resample of 2000 is sufficient (Fritz & MacKinnon, 2007). Thus, all mediation analyses were conducted with a resample of A confidence interval was generated from bootstrapping with a lower and upper bound which can either be negative or positive. If zero is not between the lower and upper bound of the confidence interval, it conceptually means the same as rejecting the null hypothesis (Hayes, 2009). To scale the latent variables to a common metric, one factor loading per latent variable was fixed to 1.0. Hoyle and Panter (1995) suggested that multiple indicators should be used to judge the fit of the models to the data. This study used the following model fit indexes: the 2 statistic, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), Bentler s comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) (Jackson, Gillasyp & Pure-Stephenson, 2009; Schreiber, 2008). Usually, for a model to be considered as a good fit, the 2 statistic should be nonsignificant, RMSEA value of.08 or under (MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996), fit index values of.90 or above (Hu & Bentler, 1999), and SRMR value of less than.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). However, chi-square statistic is not considered as a statistical test, rather it is used more as a descriptive index of fit. As chi-square is not only highly sensitive to departures from multivariate normality but also strongly influenced by sample size, chi-square values will be statistically significant with large sample size which may mistakenly implying a poor data-to-model fit (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Results Overall, this sample of college studentathletes reported low daily life stress, high sport life stress, low to high on all types of social support, and high burnout. Table 1 presents a complete descriptive of all scales and subscales. Skewness (range = -.61 to 1.29) and kurtosis (range = to 1.19) values of all life stress, social support, and burnout items fell in the range from +2 to -2 suggest that data are normally distributed (Cameron, 2004).

7 競技運動中的因應資源 : 選手壓力與倦怠 257 Table 1 Pearson Product Mement Correlations among all Variables statistics, path coefficients, and 95% confidence interval for six of the structural models examined). Some of the fit indices are considered acceptable despite not meeting the standard criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1998; Iacobucci, 2010; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004; Steiger, 2000; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Table 2 Fit Statistics, Completely Standardized Path Coefficients, and 95% Confidence Interval for Structural Models Assessing the Relationship of Daily Life Stress, Social Support, and Athlete Burnout (N=244) Mediation Testing No significant daily life stress-mediated effect was found between all types of perceived coaches social support and college student-athletes burnout. However, in all six models, daily life stress had a significant positive association with athlete burnout and all types of social support had a significant negative association with athlete burnout (see Table 2 for a complete summary of the fit statistics, path coefficients, and 95% confidence interval for six of the structural models examined). All six models examining sport life stress as the mediation between all types of social support and burnout exhibited mediocre model fit to the data. Sport life stress was found to fully mediated the relationship between all types of social support and college student-athletes burnout. Whereby, a significant negative association all types of social support were negatively associated with sport life stress and sport life stress was positively associated with athlete burnout. Furthermore, all models identified significant indirect effect for all types of social support on athlete burnout supporting full mediation (see Table 3 for a complete summary of the fit

8 258 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 Table 3 Fit Statistics, Completely Standardized Path Coefficients, and 95% Confidence Interval for Structural Models Assessing the Relationship of Sport Life Stress, Social Support, and Athlete Burnout (N=244) Discussion According past studies in sport settings, social support satisfaction influences burnout through the impact on perceived stress (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Nikolaos, 2012; Raedeke & Smith, 2004). Therefore we examined whether global and five different types of perceived coaches social support had daily or sport life stress-mediated relationships with athlete burnout. The overall results of this study provide support for the stress mediation effects of perceived coaches social support on college student-athletes burnout and fully support the hypothesis. The sample demonstrated high levels of athlete burnout resolving the concern of samples not reporting high levels of burnout in burnout-related research (Price & Weiss, 2000). In addition, findings are consistent with past researches examining the stress-mediated effects of social support on burnout conducted on athletic trainers, collegiate coaches, and youth athletes (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Nikolaos, 2012; Raedeke & Smith, 2004). Findings revealed similar results as past research (Kelley et al., 1999; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Raedeke & Smith, 2004) whereby there were statistically significant positive relationship between daily and sport life stress and burnout. College student-athletes who reported higher daily or sport life stress experienced higher levels of burnout more than those who perceived lower life stress. Although both daily and sport life stress positively predicts burnout, confirming the belief that burnout is stress related; however support was much stronger for sport life stress predicting burnout as compared to daily life stress. This finding highlights the need for coaches and sport psychologists to help athletes recognize and relieve sport-related stress so that burnout is not the final consequence. As for the main effects of perceived coaches social support on college student-athletes life stress (i.e., daily and sport life stress), only sport life stress was found to be influenced by the global social support and different types of support (i.e., emotional, esteem, informational, other tangible, training tangible). It can be derived from the results that social support negatively predicts sport life stress denoting that the higher the social support college student-athlete perceives from their coach, the lower their level of sport life stress. This finding is in line with Kelley s original stress-mediated burnout model (Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993), studies conducted on coaches (Nikolaos, 2012) and other studies conducted with athletes and athletic trainers (Hendrix et al., 2000; Raedeke & Smith, 2004). More specifically,

9 競技運動中的因應資源 : 選手壓力與倦怠 259 Kelley and colleague found that higher levels of social support were significantly related to perceived stress. Based on the findings of this study, perceived coaches social support is found to influence athlete burnout both directly and indirectly when different types of life stress are present. Specifically, when examining daily life stress as the mediator, social support negatively predicts burnout independent of its relationship with daily life stress. Nevertheless, results are consistent with findings of more recent researches (Cresswell, 2009; Freeman, Coffee, & Rees, 2011) whereby higher levels of social support were associated with lower levels of burnout, however only sport life stress was found to mediate the relationship between perceived coaches social support and college student-athletes burnout. Signifying that social support has an effect on athlete burnout, however it is an indirect effect that results from lower levels of sport life stress. This finding highlights the importance of coaches social support to help with the sport-related life stress encountered by college student-athletes, similar with findings of previous research (Rees & Hardy, 2000). A possible explanation for why perceived coaches social support did not influence daily life stress but only sport life stress is because Rees and Hardy (2000) found that special forms of support are required to help athletes with sport-specific demands. Thus, it is important that the perceived coaches social support has to be relevant to college student-athletes sport stressors in order to lower their burnout. As Rees (2007) proposed that social support can enhance athletes well-being and help them cope with different types of sport-related stressors. This is an important finding for stress and burnout research in sport settings as past research mostly assessed participants global perceived stress and social support satisfaction (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Nikolaos, 2012; Raedeke & Smith, 2004). The significance of this study is that participants life stress was differentiated into daily and sport, and a specific source as well as different types of social support. It has been recommended in sport-based social support literature that the examination of a specific support provider is necessary (Rees, 2007). As findings revealed that any types of perceived coaches social support are only effective in lowering athletes sport-related stress and in turn lower their burnout levels. Furthermore, Raedeke and Smith (2004) proposed that life-events approach that measures sport-specific stress are needed to help researchers understand how the demands of sport participation influence burnout. Since this study extended Raedeke and Smith s (2004) study by examining specific source and different types of social support, however only perceived coaches social support was examined. In addition, daily life stress was not found to mediate the relationship between perceived coaches social support and athlete burnout may be due to the role of other significant others that were not examined thus future research is needed to examine other sources of social support (e.g., teammates, teachers, or parents). As many researches recognize that significant others play an important role in shaping the attitude and behavior of individual s sport participation (Brustad, 1996; Horn & Harris, 1996; Weiss & Ebbeck, 1996). As this study was conducted in Taiwan where most participants are Chinese, hence the results might only be generalizable with other Chinese or eastern culture college

10 260 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 the prevent burnout. In addition, sport psychologist generalizability of the results, more confirmatory can use this finding to develop new intervention research is needed to support the stress-mediated and effects of social support on burnout in other student-athletes cope better with their life stress populations of athletes. For instance, future and ultimately prevent burnout. Future research is research could examine the relationship of these required to extend this study that might help variables on professional, high school, or junior expand the findings and address this study s high school athletes by utilizing appropriate potential perceived stress instruments for the population findings revealed that in order for any type of examined. Furthermore, this study utilized a coaches social cross-sectional research design by examining all lowering athletes burnout levels, it is important variables (i.e., life stress, social support, and to understand the type of stress that cause the athlete burnout) at the same time, thus the athletes to burnout. student-athletes. In order to increase preventative strategies limitations. to Therefore, support to be help the college current effective in findings could only help make inferences about the relationship between college student-athletes life stress, burnout, and perceived coaches social support. Thus, future research could duplicate and extend this study by utilizing a longitudinal research design to establish a causal relationship by following college student-athletes for at least an entire semester or over a school year. In summary, our results supported the stress-mediated effects of social support and burnout as conducted with other populations in sport settings. This is the first study to empirically examine the stress-mediated effects between perceived coaches social support and college student-athletes burnout by examining daily and sport life stress encountered by college student-athletes. Overall, high levels of sport life stress and burnout had been found within this sample of college student-athletes, which is a valuable finding for coaches and sport psychologist to reflect on as well as pay more attention on athletes stress and burnout levels. For college student-athletes experiencing burnout or not, it is necessary for coaches and sport psychologist help them develop sufficient resources and coping skills needed to lower or 引用文獻 梁懷良 (2005) 焦慮和社會支持在國際職業選 手競賽表現上的關聯 臺灣運動心理學 報 [Liang, H. L. (2005). The relationship of anxiety and social support in professional foreign athletes. Bulletin of Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan, 6, ] 盧俊宏 陳龍弘 卓國雄 (2006) Raedeke 和 Smith 運動員倦怠問卷 (ABQ) 之研究 體育學報 39(3) [Lu, J. H., Chen, L. H., & Cho, K. H. (2006). Revision of Raedeke and Smith s Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ): Analyses of validity and reliability of Chinese version. Physical Education Journal, 39(3), ] Altahayneh, Z. L. (2003). The effects of coaches' behaviors and burnout on the satisfaction and burnout of athletes. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Florida State University, Tallahasee, F1. Bianco, T., & Eklund, R. C. (2001). Conceptual considerations for social support research in sport and exercise settings: The case of sport injury. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23,

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14 264 體育學報第 48 卷第 3 期 Physical Education Journal Society of Physical Education, Taipei, Taiwan Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 251~264 ( ) 競技運動中的因應資源如何降低運動員倦 怠 : 生活壓力的中介效應 王亭文 1 李偉萍 1 盧俊宏 1 國立體育大學體育研究所 2 中國文化大學體育學系 摘要 緒論 : 在運動領域中, 競技倦怠 (athletic burnout) 的議題受到許多運動相關人員的 關注, 特別是對於學生運動員來說, 當他們同時要應付課業及訓練上的需求時, 經常因為因應資源的不足, 而產生壓力進而造成倦怠 運動員尋求社會支持已被公認為是一種面對競爭壓力 (Crocker, 1992) 或表現低潮時的一種因應策略 (Madden, Kirkby, & McDonald, 1989), 當運動員面臨壓力時, 重要他人所提供的社會支持可以減緩或消除壓力所帶來的負面影響 ; 然而, 過去研究鮮少去解釋社會支持對倦怠影響的機制, 因此, 本研究主要目的在於瞭解社會支持是否會透過運動員的生活壓力而對他們的倦怠產生影響 方法 : 本研究參與者為 244 位代表六種不同項目 ( 網球 跆拳道 田徑 射箭 籃球及棒球 ) 的大專甲組學生運動員, 女生 74 人, 男生 170 人 (M = 19.98,SD = 1.37) 所有參與者在自願參與下填寫學生運動員社會支持量表 大專學生運動員生活壓力量表 以及運動員倦怠問卷 初步的資料分析以 SPSS 18.0 進行 ; 而主要的資料分析以 Mplus 7.0 統計軟體中的結構方程模式進行中介的檢驗 結果 :( 一 ) 所有形式的社會支持負向預測運動生活壓力及倦怠 ;( 二 ) 一般與運動生活壓力正向的預測倦怠 ;( 三 ) 一般生活壓力在所有社會支持與倦怠的關係中, 沒有顯著的中介效果 ;( 四 ) 運動生活壓力在所有社會支持與倦怠的關係中, 呈現顯著的完全中介效果 結論 : 不論教練 訓練員或競技運動相關人員, 若要減緩運動員倦怠情形, 須瞭解造成運動員倦怠的壓力形態, 在瞭解何種壓力形態時給予適當的社會支持, 方能發揮最佳效果 關鍵詞 : 社會支持 學生運動員 過度訓練 2