Counseling Psychology in China: Past and Present

Transcription

1 Northern Arizona University From the SelectedWorks of Timothy Thomason 2008 Counseling Psychology in China: Past and Present Timothy Thomason, Northern Arizona University Xiao Qiong Available at:

2 1 Counseling Psychology in China: Past and Present Timothy C. Thomason Northern Arizona University Xiao Qiong Xi'an Shiyou University, Xian, China Author Notes Timothy C. Thomason is a Professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff, Arizona. Xiao Qiong is a Psychology Teacher and Mental Health Counselor at Xi'an Shiyou University in Xi'an, China. Copyright 2008 by Journal of School Counseling Citation for this article: Thomason, T. C. & Xiao, Q. (2008). Counseling psychology in China: Past and present. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 30,

3 2 Abstract Ancient Chinese philosophers were interested in ways to promote psychological development and they made significant contributions, particularly in the area of mental testing. In the 20th century the Chinese focused on behavioral psychology, and the field suffered a great setback during Mao's Cultural Revolution. However, more recently psychology has received governmental support, and psychologists in China today are rapidly developing the field of counseling psychology. This paper puts Chinese psychology in historical context and describes many current practices and needs regarding counseling psychology.

4 3 Counseling Psychology in China: Past and Present This paper provides a brief overview of the history of psychological thinking in China and a description of the current status of counseling psychology in the country. It will be seen that while many ancient ideas are still respected, contemporary psychologists in China are interested in bringing in the best of Western thinking and practices to create a holistic Chinese psychological approach to counseling and psychotherapy. Ancient Chinese Ideas About Psychology The study of psychological issues has a long history in China. About 2500 years ago Confucius said that human nature is the order of heaven, meaning it is caused by Nature or God (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Confucius believed that people are similar when they are born, but become different as a result of social molding, so education is very important. He said that development is a life-long process, and everyone can benefit from education. Confucius taught that serenity and clarity of mind result from living in accordance with practical wisdom based on metaphysical laws (Bankart, 1997). Chinese Taoist scholars taught that opposites function to maintain the harmony of the cosmos. Oppositions such as Yin and Yang, light and darkness, birth and decay, and male and female, operate together to form the Tao, or Way. Taoism's founder, Lao-tzu taught that nature keeps a proper balance; any extreme in one direction eventually swings back toward the opposite. C. G. Jung incorporated this idea into his theory (Jung, 1968), and the self-actualization theories of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers have some similarities to ideas in Taoism and Zen Buddhism. The first Chinese encyclopedia of medicine, published about 2,000 years ago, linked psychological problems to brain pathology (Wang, 1993). Sun-tzu's book The Art

5 4 of War (Sun-tzu, 2005), which was written 2500 years ago, could be seen as a forerunner to modern organizational psychology. This book teaches many creative strategies for dealing with conflict, particularly in organizations. The most important contribution of ancient Chinese culture to applied psychology is that of mental testing (Anastasi & Urbino, 1996). About 3,000 years ago in China, the emperor used tests to assess people's fitness for official positions (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Various methods for measuring talent and behavior were popular, including identifying intelligence by response speed, situational assessment, and measuring mental abilities through interviews. By the time of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. to C.E. 220) the use of test batteries was common in civil service examinations, and included essay writing and oral exams (Zhang, 1988). In 1832 British companies began copying the Chinese system for selecting employees, and the British government began using it for its civil service in 1855 (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1993). Later, French, German, and American governments endorsed the system, and the testing movement has grown rapidly since then. Psychology in ancient China did not develop into a systematic discipline, and few empirical studies were conducted. Thus, Chinese psychology lacked a scientific basis. Traditionally Chinese scholars studied literature, history, and poetry, but not science (Fitzgerald, 1976). Few cases of mental illness or psychotherapy are described in ancient Chinese literature, and the treatments used were usually qigong (deep breathing) and herbs. Talking therapy was directive and pragmatic and usually focused on improving the patient's family and social relationships (So, 2005). Historically in China, a common

6 5 explanation for mental illness was spirit possession, and patients would usually visit a Buddhist temple, consult a fortune-teller, or see a spiritual healer. Psychology in China in the 20th Century Western-style psychology arrived in China at the beginning of the 20th century, brought by Chinese scientists who had studied in the West. By the early 1920s psychologists had established the country's first psychological laboratory, department, journal, and psychological society. However, progress stopped with the outbreak of the war with Japan in 1937 and the world war that followed (Clay, 2002). Psychology rebounded with the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, but with a Soviet twist (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes dominated in this period. The new psychology took Marxism-Leninism and Mao's thought as the basic philosophy underlying psychological theory. Western psychology was rejected because of its capitalist nature. Soviet psychology became a model for Chinese psychologists because it was considered the approach best conforming to the ideology of the working people (Barabanschikova & Koltsova, 1989). Marxist philosophy explains human behavior in terms of economic and social determinants. The Western emphasis on individual differences was seen as a tool of the bourgeoisie, which contradicted Marxist doctrine that people are shaped mainly by their social class (Jing, 1994). In the 1950s the government abolished the fields of social psychology and psychological testing because social psychology ignored the class nature of social groups and psychological testing stressed individual differences rather than social differences. Western theories were seen as a tool for exploiting the working class (Jing, 1994).

7 6 During Mao's Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, the government closed the nation's psychology departments and research institutes. It dismissed psychology itself as a bourgeois pseudo-science promoting a false ideology of individual differences (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Psychologists were labeled reactionaries, universities were closed, and many psychologists were sent to remote areas of the country to work on farms. This disaster lasted until the termination of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 (Jing, 1994). Since then China's attitude toward psychology has changed dramatically (Clay, 2002). In the late 1970s Chinese economic reform launched an open-door policy to the outside world, and psychology was rehabilitated as a scientific discipline. With increased international exchanges, new ideas and areas of research such as cognitive psychology and counseling psychology have become popular (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Applied Psychology in China Today Chinese people account for about one-quarter of the world's population, and they are the largest Asian group in the United States (Lin, 2002). Many analysts predict that China may become a world superpower in this century, but the country also faces great challenges. Applied psychology could play an important role in China's development. Today the Chinese government supports psychology and has listed it as one of six disciplines that deserve high priority for government funding. Until recently most Chinese psychologists focused on teacher training, where half of them still work. But three new priorities are counseling psychology, human resources, and health psychology. The introduction of a free-market economy brought China more prosperity, but also increased rates of anxiety and depression (Clay, 2002). This could be due to the difficulty of adjusting to rapid economic development and social change. Today many

8 7 high schools have counselors and most universities now have counseling centers. While psychotherapy is becoming more available in the big cities, people in rural areas have little access to psychological services. A 1997 report estimated that China accounts for 44% of the world's suicides each year despite having only 24% of the world's population (Clay, 2002). According to Chinese psychologist Zhang Kan, psychology and counseling are still mysteries to many Chinese people, and most of them choose not to seek help from a professional counselor or psychologist ("Modern technology," 2004). There are about 4,000 telephone hotlines and websites offering psychological counseling throughout China ("Modern technology," 2004). At present there are only six Chinese universities with psychology departments and 12 psychological research labs around the country, but most colleges and universities in the country offer some psychology courses (Clay, 2002). A concern for the future of psychology in China is that there are no specific career paths for students who major in psychology. There is no organized post-graduate professional psychology training, and psychology graduates are often trapped in low-income jobs. Many graduates go into unrelated professions (Xiao Qiong, personal communication, July 12, 2006). In addition, many Chinese psychologists who travel abroad for training do not return to China, creating a brain drain. Standards are low to qualify as a "psychologist." Many Chinese psychologists have only a general college degree (equivalent to a Bachelors degree) and some on-the-job experience (Clay, 2002). School counselors typically have three years of college. There is a national certification program for both counselors and psychologists (Liu Yingjia, personal communication, July 12, 2006).

9 8 Most university courses in psychology borrow extensively from Western psychology, but some include both Western and Chinese traditions (Clay, 2002). Foreign psychological books account for 90% of psychology books sold in China ("China needs," 2004). Wang Dengfeng, a psychologist at Beijing University, has said that Chinese psychology should do more to incorporate Chinese society and culture. Western psychology is limited in its application to the Chinese. For example, Western career interest tests used in China are based on Western values and may be misleading when used with Chinese people. Wang's research on Chinese personality found seven dimensions that were different from the dimensions found in Americans ("China needs," 2004). An approach to psychology that was more specifically Chinese would likely focus more on family ties and social relations. The area of human resources is also a growth area for psychologists in China. While in the past the government assigned everyone to their jobs, today people are free to find jobs that suit their interests and abilities. Both the public and private sectors are using psychologists to find the best candidates for jobs (Clay, 2002). Most psychologists in China today provide services for students and teachers, but some train police officers, and some do personnel management for the government (Zhang Xifeng, personal communication, July 12, 2006). Psychologists are also beginning to get involved in programs to help the population stay healthy. Especially critical is halting a rising HIV/AIDS epidemic, and psychologists have started to pay attention to this problem. China needs many more welltrained psychologists. Currently there are only about 10,000 psychologists in a country of more than a billion people, which is fewer than two psychologists for every million

10 9 people (Clay, 2002). According to social science professor Qiu Xiaodong in Hong Kong, psychological problems are now the most common cause of illness in China, exceeding even heart disease ("Modern technology," 2004). Traditional Chinese Treatments for Psychological Disorders Medical students in China receive training in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as part of their basic education, and in medical practice, typically Western medicine is used for acute illnesses, and TCM is used for chronic conditions (So, 2005). Some Traditional Chinese medical treatments are similar to what are called "energy psychology" approaches in the U. S. (Gallo, 2004) and are often used to treat anxiety and depression. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) emphasizes the role of energy (qi) in the body, and the ways that movements of qi affect the emotions (Zhiyong, 2006). Today in China psychotherapists who incorporate TCM into their practice may use herbal medicine, qigong (deep breathing exercise), acupuncture, and music. One qigong psychology expert explained the effect of qigong on therapy patients as resulting from suggestion, similar to hypnotherapy (Zhiyong, 2006). Acupuncture is used to treat depression, phobias, chronic pain, and somatic symptoms generated by psychological problems. Music therapy is used to distract people from their problems (Zhiyong, 2006). Many Chinese people believe in the value of these traditional healing methods, as well as even more scientifically suspect practices such as using talismans and incantations (Xu Keqian, personal communication, July 11, 2006). However, many such practices can be helpful in alleviating symptoms and reducing anxiety, even if they do not have specific effects for specific disorders (So, 2005).

11 10 Although traditionally many Chinese people sought spiritual healers for help with psychological symptoms and disorders, the current Chinese government discourages this because spiritual healing is considered superstitious (So, 2005). Today symptoms that would have been attributed to spirit possession in the past are more likely to be attributed to incorrect qigong practice. Qigong is considered more scientific than spiritual healing, although Western psychologists would not consider qigong an empirically supported treatment (So, 2005). Clinical and Counseling Psychology Today Psychological research in China is oriented toward social needs and practical applications, with the goal of contributing to economic development and national modernization (Shi, 1989). In clinical and counseling psychology, Western therapeutic methods are often used, particularly cognitive behavior therapy (Clay, 2002). Some studies have found that directive therapy models, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, are more effective with Chinese clients than nondirective approaches (Chen & Davenport, 2005). During an extended study tour in China in 2006 the author had the opportunity to learn about applied psychology in several locations in both urban and rural China. Meetings were held with numerous Chinese psychologists, mental health counselors, and school counselors in Nanjing, Qufu, Xi'an, and Beijing. These applied psychologists were very interested in learning about current counseling and psychotherapy approaches in the United States. All of them were familiar with cognitive-behavioral therapy, and most said they practiced it. Other popular approaches they used were behavior modification, Object Relations, and family therapy. The three most popular Western psychologists mentioned

12 11 as influences were B. F. Skinner, Carl Rogers, and Albert Ellis. The Chinese psychologists and counselors reported using the DSM in the diagnosis of disorders, as well as a Chinese diagnostic system, and they reported using psychological tests such as the WAIS III, the MMPI, the 16PF, and Raven's Progressive Matrices (Liu Yingjia, personal communication, July 12, 2006). The Chinese mental health counselors who work with adolescents said that their clients' most common problem is anxiety related to school performance, especially since there is often great parental pressure to do well. Some students have great difficulty paying attention, and there is also a problem with "video game addiction" although reportedly there is little alcohol and drug abuse among teenagers (Zheng Linke, personal communication, July 28, 2006). Many teenage boys see counselors for loneliness, bad moods, stress, and alienation from their parents. Truancy from school is a common problem, and boys are often socially awkward, especially with girls. The counselors typically use cognitive-behavioral therapy, but they also recommend deep breathing, exercises and listening to calming music. In the schools and universities counseling is free for students, but many of the teenaged students are reluctant to seek help, so the problems get worse. The Future of Counseling Psychology in China Although psychology is recognized as an important field by the Chinese government and is enjoying prosperity at the moment, its future is questionable. Development is contingent on economic growth, since a developing country has to first provide for its people's basic needs (food, shelter, health) before it can afford to provide for their higher psychological needs. Given the economic pressures and population

13 12 problem, the further development of psychology cannot be seen as a top national priority (Clay, 2002). Because the government employs almost all the psychologists in the country, the future of the profession depends on government support. In practical terms, there is a lack of funding for the professional development of psychologists. For example, most university libraries have only a few American and European psychology books and journals, and there is little funding for psychologists to attend professional conferences or research. China is currently in a phase of emphasizing the mutual communication and exchange of ideas with the rest of the world. While Chinese psychology is certain to benefit from this influx of new ideas, attention must also be focused on creating a uniquely Chinese psychology. Traditional Chinese philosophy can provide a good foundation for the future development of Chinese psychology. While there is currently significant stigma attached to seeking counseling or psychotherapy, this can be expected to decrease as these services become more available and more people take advantage of them. The practice of counseling psychology will likely continue to combine Western ideas with traditional Chinese ideas, and the trend toward developing a more culturally appropriate Chinese psychology is promising. Assuming the continuation of government support and the freedom of Chinese psychologists to develop their field, the future of counseling psychology in China is bright.

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