The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits
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1 The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits
2 EMOTIONS, PERSONALITY, AND PSYCHOTHERAPY Series Editors Carroll E. Izard, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware and Jerome L. Singer, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut Recent volumes in the series THE COGNillVE FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY TRAITS Shulamith Kreitler and Hans Kreitler THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN: Physiology, Neuroanatomy, Psychology, and Emotion P. V. Simonov EMOTIONS IN PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Edited by Carroll E. Izard FREUD AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Volume 1 The Emotional Basis of Mental Illness Volume 2 The Emotional Basis of Human Behavior Helen Block Lewis GUIDED AFFECTIVE IMAGERY WITH CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS Hanscarl Leuner, Gunther Horn, and Edda Klessmann LANGUAGE IN PSYCHOTHERAPY: Strategies of Discovery Edited by Robert L. Russell THE POWER OF HUMAN IMAGINATION: New Methods in Psychotherapy Edited by Jerome L. Singer and Kenneth S. Pope THE PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS Jack George Thompson SAMPLING NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC INNER EXPERIENCE Russell T. Hurlburt SHYNESS: Perspectives on Research and Treatment Edited by Warren H. Jones, Jonathan M. Cheek, and Stephen R. Briggs THE TRANSFORMED SELF: The Psychology of Religious Conversion Chana Ullman A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.
3 The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits Shulamith Kreitler and Hans Kreitler Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, Israel SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA. LLC
4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Kreider, Shulamith. The cognitive foundations of personality traits I Shulamith Kreider and Hans Kreider. p. em.-(emotions, personality, and psychotherapy) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Personality and cognition. I. Kreider, Hans. II. Title. III. Series. BF698.9.C63K '3-dc CIP 1990 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1990 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
5 To Solomon E. Asch and Florence Asch for a quarter-century of inspiring and heartwarming friendship
6 Preface Hardly anything in psychology is as irking as the trait concept. Psychologists and laypersons alike use primarily adjective trait-names to characterize and even conceptualize the individuals they encounter. There are more than a hundred well-defined personality traits and a great many questionnaires for their assessment, some of which are designed to assess the same or very similar traits. Little is known about their ontogenetic development and even less about their underlying dynamics. Psychoanalytic theory was invoked for explaining the psychodynamics underlying a few personality traits without, however, presenting sufficient empirical evidence for the validity of these interpretations. In a reductionistic vein, behaviorally inclined psychologists have propounded the thesis that all traits are acquired behaviors. Yet, this view neither reduces the number of personality tests nor explains the resistance of traits to modification by means of reward and punishment. Dissatisfied with these and some other less well-known approaches to personality traits, we decided to explore whether applying our psychosemantic theory of cognition to the trait concept would do better. The way we had to follow was anything but easy. This book presents the results of our long explorations: a new definition of traits, an explanation of trait dynamics in terms of meaning, a specification of trait characteristics that allows us, for example, to compare traits or to determine whether a given personality disposition is a trait or is not, the amazing facteven for us-that one relatively simple test can be used for assessing each of the 120 best known and well-studied personality traits, and many more applications and demonstrations of the new conception of traits. In the first part of the book (Part I), we present and analyze various problems and difficulties besetting the conventional trait concept (Chapter 1). Then we describe the new meaning-based approach to cognition, emphasizing its major assumptions, tenets, concepts (e.g., meaning, meaning profile, and meaning variable), implications, and the new assessment tools it has generated, mainly the assessment of meaning. Following this presentation, we proceed to the theoretical rationale leading to the cognitive conception of personality traits (Chapter 2). This conception was tested in a series of over 40 empirical studies of personality traits. The major findings and conclusions of these studies in regard to personality traits are described in Chapters 3 to 8. The conclusions concern issues, such as the nature of traits (Chapter 3), how traits function (Chapter 4), and the relations of traits to overt vii
7 viii Preface behavior (Chapter 8). The problems concerning traits raised in Chapter 1 are answered in Chapter 7 in the framework of the new meaning-based trait concept, on the basis of the extensive research findings. The second part of the book (Part II) is devoted to empirical studies of traits based on applying the new cognitive approach, implemented by the assessment of meaning. An introductory section discusses the methodological and procedural issues common to all the studies. The 22 presented studies were selected because they deal with 76 common traits of different kinds (e.g., emotional, cognitive, and social), illustrate a wide range of different applications of the new conception, and demonstrate its contributions to resolving specific problems concerning particular personality traits, such as extroversion, Machiavellianism, external and internal control, and sensation seeking. The third part of the book (Part III) focuses on practical applications of the new conception of personality traits to issues such as trait assessment, trait comparisons, and the construct validity of traits. The illustrations are based partly on studies of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Jackson Research Form, and different anxiety scales. In particular we show how one test, the assessment of meaning, can provide information about trait scores. Each of the chapters of Part III includes precise instructions for working with the new trait concept. The information necessary for applying the new concept to the assessment of personality traits is summarized in Appendix B. Owing to the amazing number of publications, psychologists often lack the time to read a professional book from cover to cover. Therefore, it seems advisable to point out what is essential to understanding, as well as what is likely to be of special interest to different professional groups. To our mind, reading Part I is absolutely necessary for obtaining an adequate understanding of the new trait concept, its dynamics, its theoretical and practical implications, and the extent of its potentialities. Chapter 6, however, may be skipped by those readers who either are not particularly interested in methodological aspects or trust that the authors have done a proper job. The studies described in Part II may be interesting and, we hope, even important to psychologists who are actively involved in research in personality in general or personality traits in particular, as well as to those who want to learn more about one or another of the discussed traits. Both groups are advised to read the introductory section and then those studies that deal with the traits in which they are particularly interested. Part III is specifically designed for researchers and practitioners. Chapter 10, which describes in detail how to assess traits by means of the meaning test, is essential reading for both. The other chapters deal with more specific applications focusing on issues of identifying traits (Chapter 11), characterizing trait scales and factors (Chapter 12), and using the meaning system for validation (Chapter 13). Any of these may be read either by investigators who are interested in the discussed issue or by those who would like to use the detailed examples as inspiration for exploring further applications of the new system. A preface would hardly be complete without expressions of thanks to all those who have helped in making this book possible. Out of the many, we would like to mention in particular the workers of the Tel Aviv Computation Center for having contributed their expertise and time; Professor William McGuire of Yale University
8 Preface ix for his unswerving encouragement and help; and our students at Tel Aviv University, especially Mr. Gadi Breier, Ms. Iris Drexler, and Dr. Talma Lobel, whose data constitute a part of the broad research base for the new conception; Mrs. Oma Hamilis, the graphic art designer at Tel Aviv University, who has volunteered to prepare Figure 1; as well as the many others whose critical remarks over the years have led us toward an increasing clarity of conception. We would finally like to thank those at Plenum, namely Eliot Werner, Margaret Ritchie, and Robert Freire, for their contributions in the course of bringing this volume to publication.
9 Contents I. THE TRAIT CONCEPT Traits: The Embattled Concept Doing Something about Traits Traits in Personality Traits in the Quagmire The Eight Questions Toward a Solution The Underlying Level The Meaning System Basic Assumptions Derivation of the Meaning System The Meaning Variables Meaning Dimensions Types of Relation Forms of Relation Shifts in Referents A Brief Interim Summary The Meaning Profile Zigzagging toward a Hypothesis Active and Passive Mastery of Meaning Variables Preferred Meaning Variables On the Track of Function Some Assumptions and the Hypotheses The Trait and Its Constituents The Major Finding Meaning-Assignment Tendencies xi
10 xii Contents Manifestations of Meaning-Assignment Tendencies Meaning Preferences and Beliefs Behavioral Manifestations of Meaning Preferences Trait Dynamics Meaning Assignment Interaction within the Trait Pattern Substitution Structural Impacts The Preservation of Reality Testing A Glimpse of the Interaction between Traits Traits and Behavior Trait Dynamics and Interactions: A Brief Summary Characteristics of the Trait Pattern The Uses of Trait Characteristics The Seven Trait Characteristics Specificity Two Levels of Generality Structure Meaning Variables of Different Kinds and Their Proportions in the Pattern Positive and Negative Components Number of Meaning Variables in the Pattern Coherence Concluding Remarks and an Extended Trait Definition A Methodological Interlude Purpose Testing for Biases Question 1: Is There a Bias Pro or Contra Any Particular Meaning Variable? Question 2: Did the Characteristics of the Meaning System Bias the Distribution of the Meaning Variables in the Trait Patterns? Question 3: Was There Any Bias in the Chances of Any Grouping of Meaning Variables to Be Included in the Trait Patterns? Some General Conclusions The Answers: A Summary of Contributions Answering the Questions Question 1. What Is a Trait and What Is the Epistemological and Existential Status of the Trait Concept? Question 2. What Are the Typical Manifestations of Traits?
11 Contents xiii Question 3. What Are the Similarities or Differences between Traits as Well as between Traits and Related Concepts? Question 4. What Are the Attributes of Traits? Question 5. Are There Different Kinds of Traits? Question 6. What Is the Structure of Traits? Question 7. How Do Traits Function? Question 8. What Is the Relation of Traits and Behavior? Traits and Human Behavior A Systems Approach The Cognitive Orientation Theory Traits and Behavior Evocation The Issue of Behavioral Consistency Beyond the Trait-Behavior Relation: The Importance of a Trait Concept 122 II. STUDIES ON TRAITS Studies on Traits... : Goals of the Studies Order of Presentation General Guiding Principles The Studied Traits Some Features of Method Common to the Studies On the Track of Manifestations of Meaning Variables Notes on Interactions Study 1. Extroversion in Questionnaire and Meaning Study 2. The Meaning Patterns of the California Psychological Inventory Study 3. Meaning and Machiavellianism Study 4. Need for Power and Some More Machiavellianism Study 5. The Functionality of Machiavellians Study 6. Cattell's Personality Factors as Patterns of Meaning Variables Study 7. Different Kinds of Meaning Variables in Jungian Types Study 8. Meaning and the Constellation of Approval Motive, Ego Strength, and Anality Study 9. Cleanliness and Order Part A: The Patterns of Meaning Variables Part B: Preferences for Specific Meaning Values Study 10. Hypochondriasis, Avarice, and Impulsivity Study 11. The General Meaning Pattern of External-Internal Control Study 12. The Meaning Patterns of Specific Subtypes of External and Internal Control Part A: Defining Four Clusters of Externality and Internality Part B: Testing the Four Clusters of Externality and Internality
12 xiv Contents Study 13. You Don't Have to Be Dogmatic to Be Authoritarian Study 14. Meanings of Cognitive and Motor Activities Study 15. The Different Meaning Patterns of Sensation Seeking Study 16. Meaningful Choices of Subtypes of Sensation Seekers Study 17. The Meaning Patterns of Sex-Role Conceptions (Bern Scale) Study 18. The Three Meaningful Faces of Intolerance of Ambiguity Study 19. The Three Clusters of Intolerance of Ambiguity Study 20. The Meaning Profiles of Leadership Styles Study 21. Meaning and the Eye of the Beholder Study 22. Traits in Interaction III. HOW TO WORK WITH THE NEW TRAIT CONCEPT Assessment of Personality Traits Assessing All Traits by Means of the Meaning Questionnaire The Procedure of Assessing Personality Traits by Means of the Meaning Questionnaire Antitraits Validation Advantages of the Meaning-Based Trait Scores Identifying Personality Traits Importance of Identifying Traits The Procedure for Identifying Traits The Case of the MMPI: An Example of Applying the Procedure The Case of the PRF Other Applications of the Method for Identifying Traits Characterizing Trait Scales and Factors Identifying the General Class of Traits Comparing Traits Characterizing Factors Meaning-Based Validation of Personality Traits Traits and Manifestations Validating by Meaning The Procedure of Meaning-Based Validation Meaning-Based Validation and Other Validation Methods Validation as a Continuing Process Postscript
13 Contents XV Appendixes Appendix A. Appendix B. Appendix C. 333 The Meaning Variables: List and Code Summary of Manifestations of Meaning Variables General Instructions for Coding the Meaning Questionnaire References 375 Index
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