Unit Three: Behavior and Cognition. Marshall High School Mr. Cline Psychology Unit Three AE

Size: px

Start display at page:

Download "Unit Three: Behavior and Cognition. Marshall High School Mr. Cline Psychology Unit Three AE"

Virginia Rosamond Gibson
5 years ago
Views:

1 Unit Three: Behavior and Cognition Marshall High School Mr. Cline Psychology Unit Three AE

2 In 1994, two American scholars published a best-selling, controversial book called The Bell Curve. * Intelligence We all want to be smart in one way or another, but what exactly is general intelligence? We are going to look at the possible factors behind intellectual development and how this controversial topic has been examined by psychologists. Few topics in psychology are as hotly debated or have as controversial a history as intelligence. The question of whether intelligence depends on biological or educational factors took a dark turn in the history of intelligence research. Many view intelligence as the human trait most directly related to success; so the stakes are high when psychologists set out to determine just how much control we have over our own intellectual development. Studies of intelligence have historically been used to justify discrimination, so modern researchers tackling the subject must be careful about research design and data interpretation.

3 The book proposes that intelligence is determined in part by genetics, and that African Americans and Latinos have genetically lower intelligence than Caucasians and Asian Americans. The authors also argue that since highly intelligent people tend to rise to the top of business and social circles, they're continually separating themselves as a class from less intelligent people. Their findings were rejected by many as a defense of race-based inequality, and as something that could be used to argue against programs designed to help historically underprivileged groups. But how do we decide whether someone is intelligent or not? The Bell Curve relied extensively on standardized intelligence tests, but the accuracy and usefulness of these tests has been questioned since tests like this tend to favor people who are culturally similar to the test's designers. Is it possible to study intelligence in a way that doesn't inherently disadvantage one group or another?

4 Let's begin by attempting to define what intelligence truly is. Most people would agree that humans are smarter than other animals. But beyond that, how can we measure a person's intelligence compared to the rest of the population? Should intelligence be defined by the ability to do well in school, or instead in terms of common-sense street smarts; by the ability to solve problems, or to maintain emotional relationships? Are people who read lots of books smarter than people who can quickly pick up new forms of dance? A broad, more inclusive definition of intelligence was proposed by a group of psychologists led by Ulric Neisser. They said that intelligence is the 'ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning and to overcome obstacles by taking thought.'

5 According to Neisser and his colleagues, you're smart if you can succeed at a variety of interrelated tasks. The work of psychologist Charles Spearman provides support for this idea. Spearman studied students' grades in various subjects. The statistical method Spearman used compares variability across multiple tasks, and is called factor analysis. Through factor analysis, Spearman found that high-performing students tend to do well across all subjects, not just in the subjects that they're especially strong in. So, an A student tends to get As in all subjects, but might earn an A+ in math because she's a math whiz.

6 Based on his findings, Spearman devised a 2-factor theory of intelligence. The first factor reflects the ability of the A student to get As in most subjects. Spearman called it the relatively constant level of mental performance across diverse mental tasks, or general global intelligence (g). Spearman's second factor, meanwhile, varies from task to task. This reflects the A+ in math that the A student gets because she's a math whiz. This type is known as specific intelligence (s), because it describes being smart in a specific way.

7 The earliest well-known intelligence test was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. * Intelligence Most psychologists today believe that some version of general intelligence exists. Yet, the origins of intelligence, ways it can be measured and its importance for success in life are still being questioned. Throughout the years, there have been many methods used that attempted to accurately quantify and measure human intelligence. You've probably heard of or taken an IQ test, but what does an IQ test actually measure? What does it mean to be intelligent? Can intelligence be measured? If so, what's the best way to do it? Psychologists have tried lots of different ways to measure intelligence.

8 The French government wanted a way to identify students with learning disabilities, so Binet conducted studies to determine the average performance levels for different school-age groups. You may have heard of an IQ test. You may have even taken one. Binet's research provides the groundwork for this type of test by outlining the concept of IQ, or Intelligence Quotient. It's called a quotient because it's calculated by dividing a person's mental age by their chronological age. The mental age is determined by a test, and the chronological age is the test taker's actual age in years. A person who's intelligent according to these kinds of tests performs at a higher level compared to others who are at the same chronological age. The average score on an IQ test is 100.

9 In order to avoid dealing with fractions, the test's designers decided to multiply all scores by 100, which makes that the average score. Other similar intelligence tests have been standardized around an average score of 100 as well. (IQ = mental age/chronological age, *100) Many developments in intelligence testing occurred in the U.S., where they were messily intertwined with the American eugenics movement. The term eugenics was coined by an Englishman, Sir Francis Galton, who was the grandson of Charles Darwin, the famous evolutionary natural biologist. Eugenics quite literally means 'good genes,' and it refers to the goal of improving the genetic makeup of a population by reducing or eliminating allegedly inferior genes. You can probably already see where intelligence testing fits into this; the tests were used to determine who had the 'inferior genes.'

10 Galton and others mistakenly believed that the principles of Darwinian evolution - which effects change over the course of many generations - could be applied to rid the population of what they felt were 'undesirable' human social characteristics. Social Darwinism, as the principle behind eugenics is frequently called, resulted in artificial rather than natural selection for traits deemed most acceptable by high-status Americans. It resulted in unfair treatment of racial minorities, who by the standards of the day, were assumed to represent 'less evolved' forms of humans. Intelligence testing was used to support discriminatory policies made in the pursuit of 'good genes.' As an example, American psychologist Henry Goddard sought to limit the immigration of supposedly 'inferior people' into the U.S. He began testing immigrants at Ellis Island, and in 1917, he reported that 'as many as 40-50% of immigrants were feebleminded.'

11 These results could be explained by the tests favoring Goddard's own culture and language, but eugenicists took it as further evidence of race and intelligence being intertwined. This is still a problem with modern tests like the SAT, where low scores among certain minority groups are taken as evidence of inferior intelligence rather than as an indication of unequal social and economic opportunity. There have been some attempts to move intelligence testing away from these problematic, single-factor measurements. Psychologist David Wechsler was dissatisfied with the Binet-based intelligence tests. Wechsler did not wholly endorse the notion of general intelligence. Instead of trying to measure a single quantity, he created tests that were divided into two main areas: verbal-based questions and nonverbal tasks like pattern recognition, each of which are further subdivided.

12 Wechsler's tests are scored differently than Binet's, though the average score is still 100. Have you ever wondered if your intelligence is entirely due to genetics or if it's shaped by the environment surrounding you? Do we inherit intelligence from our parents? What are the origins of intelligence? Is there any truth to the claim that genes determine it, or is intelligence solely the result of environmental factors? Many studies suggest that intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. We do know that people who share genes tend to have similar mental capabilities. Identical twins have near-identical genetic codes, and they often score nearly the same on intelligence tests.

13 Biological children and their parents, who are likewise genetically similar, are more likely to have similar IQs than adopted children and their parents. Measurable physiological factors also support biological and possibly genetic influences that affect intelligence. For one thing, larger brain size is loosely correlated with greater intelligence. So are the brain's glucose metabolic rate, or the speed at which it makes energy, and the speed of brain waves. But none of these things are solely responsible for intelligence. Still, research shows that we aren't born with a biologically predetermined amount of intelligence that remains fixed for our whole lives. Environmental influences have been shown to impact test results.

14 Both fluid intelligence, or the ability to learn new ways of doing things, and crystallized intelligence, or the stockpile of knowledge we've accumulated throughout our whole lives, have been shown to change over time. The environments in which we live influence our intelligence. Twins raised in the same environment have IQs that are more similar than twins raised in different homes. Other studies suggest that peer groups, the people you associate with, can impact intelligence. For these reasons, education generally tends to improve intelligence, but poverty seems to harm it. It's hard to distinguish between the hereditary and environmental factors that affect intelligence. Family members who share similar genetic makeup usually share living environments, too.

15 Twin studies that look at twins separated at birth are one of the few ways for us to understand the impact of genes versus environment on intelligence. It's unclear which biological and environmental causes contribute to the gradual but persistent increase in intelligence test scores over the years. This increase is known as the Flynn effect, named for psychologist James Flynn, and the exact causes are still unknown. Some psychologists think that improved nutrition and medical care are responsible. But others think it's because of environmental causes, like better and more widespread education. In the end, intelligence is affected by both genetic and environmental factors; it's the result of both nature and nurture. Genetic predisposition and environmental influences are often difficult to fully separate.

16 Despite genetic factors, intelligence can be increased or decreased by environmental circumstances. Did you know that there are different types of intelligence, more specific than general intelligence? Which types of intelligence do you identify with? Imagine you're going to give a presentation in class or at work. Would you include pictures to illustrate your points? Would you tell a story or act out a skit? The method you choose would draw on your talents and reflect the way that you solve problems and learn. So, if visual aids like maps and drawings help you understand concepts, you're likely to include them in your presentation.

Testing and Individual Differences

Testing and Individual Differences College Board Objectives: AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence: