Unit XI. Testing and Individual Differences. Modules

Transcription

1 Unit XI Testing and Individual Differences Overview Unit XI tackles the enduring question and challenge of how to define and measure intelligence. The unit reviews the theories of Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, and Robert Sternberg and the brain structures involved in activities requiring intelligence. Next follows an explanation of the origin and rise of intelligence testing and the methods researchers utilize to ensure reliability and validity of tests. The role genetics and environment play in intelligence and the traits of those who demonstrate extreme high or extreme low scores on intelligence assessments are also covered. The unit concludes by considering the roles gender, race, and ethnicity play in intelligence. Modules 60 Introduction to Intelligence 61 Assessing Intelligence 62 The Dynamics of Intelligence 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 64 Group Differences and the Question of Bias Tip #11 Visit the College Board Website and Review Take a moment to visit the AP Psychology page of the College Board website to look at the Course Description. There you will find a list of all of the AP Psychology topics and learning objectives, along with the approximate percentage of the multiple choice portion of the test that will cover those topics. As you begin to review and prepare for the exam, group your vocabulary cards from previous units into topics and set up a schedule of review that takes into account the greater emphasis on certain topics. For instance, from the Course Description you can see that States of Consciousness, Unit V, makes up about 2 4% of the test while Social Psychology, Unit XIV, accounts for about 8 10% of the exam. Obviously you only have so many hours in the day, and perhaps other AP courses you are preparing for, so it makes sense to allocate more vocabulary review time to the sections that make up more of the test

2 Module 60 Introduction to Intelligence Module Summary Before You Read Module 60 discusses the difficulty of defining intelligence and presents arguments for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability, as Charles Spearman proposed. Various theories of intelligence, including those of Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg are presented and compared. The four components of emotional intelligence are explained and the relationship between intelligence and brain structure and function is described. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms and names you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each. Key Terms Key Names intelligence savant syndrome Charles Spearman intelligence test grit L. L. Thurstone general intelligence (g) emotional intelligence Howard Gardner factor analysis Robert Sternberg Answer the following questions/prompts. While You Read Why is it difficult to define intelligence? How would your definition differ from that given in the text? What would you add or delete from the text s definition? Answers will vary but should include the idea that psychologists debate whether intelligence is one aptitude or many, linked to cognitive speed, or even neurologically measurable. 326

3 While You Read Explain how L.L. Thurstone s studies on intelligence supported the results of Charles Spearman s work with g. Spearman believed we have one general intelligence, g; he also thought that people have special abilities that stand out. Thurstone did not rank people on a single scale of general aptitude but identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities, but it did seem that those who excelled in one of the seven clusters generally scored well on the others so there might be evidence of g. 2. In what way did both Thurstone and Spearman use factor analysis in the development of their theories? Spearman and Thurstone used factor analysis to identify clusters of related intelligence abilities. 3. Describe how Satoshi Kanazawa s contentions about the evolution of intelligence complement the studies of Thurstone and Spearman. Kanazawa argues that general intelligence evolved as a form of intelligence that helps people solve novel problems. More common problems require a different sort of intelligence. He thought that general intelligence scores do correlate with the ability to solve various novel problems but not with the more common problems List the common characteristics of someone with savant syndrome. People with savant syndrome score low on intelligence tests and sometimes have limited language ability but possess an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing. 2. Discuss Howard Gardner s contribution to the discussion of intelligence. How do his critics refute his work? Gardner views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in different packages. He thought we had multiple intelligences. Gardner s critics say it doesn t work in that way to be strong in one intelligence is not balanced by a weakness in another, for example. Factor analysis has shown that there is a general intelligence (g).

4 328 Module 60 Introduction to Intelligence 3. Explain how the quote by Bill Gates below relates to the work of Thurstone, Spearman, and Gardner. You have to be careful, if you re good at something, to make sure you don t think you re good at other things that you aren t necessarily so good at... Because I ve been very successful at (software development) people come in and expect that I have wisdom about topics that I don t. Bill Gates (1998) Thurstone: Thurstone thought there were seven clusters of primary intelligence, so Bill Gates quote would relate to his work in that Gates is agreeing that just because we are intelligent in one cluster, doesn t mean we are intelligent in all the others. Spearman: Gates quote would conflict with Spearman s idea that we all have a general intelligence (g). Spearman found that those who score high in one area also score higher in other areas and that g underlies all intelligent behavior. He would argue that Gates IS intelligent and has wisdom in all topics if he has the strong intelligence in software developing. Gardner: Gardner, like Thurstone, would agree with Gates statement that intelligence in one area doesn t necessarily transfer to all areas. 4. Summarize Sternberg s three intelligences. Sternberg s triarchic theory, according to this text, is composed of: analytical intelligence (assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems with a single right answer; grades in school) creative intelligence (reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas) practical intelligence (required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined and with many possible solutions; shrewd ability to manage oneself, one s tasks, and other people) 5. Discuss how Robert Sternberg s triarchic theory of intelligence agrees with Gardner s theory. In what ways do Sternberg s and Gardner s theories differ? Sternberg and Gardner agree that there are differing types of intelligence and both recognize that knowing how to work with others referred to as interpersonal in Gardner s theory and practical in Sternberg s is a mark of intelligence. They differ in that Sternberg groups many of Gardner s into just three categories. For instance, both interand intrapersonal might be found under Sternberg s practical intelligence category.

5 While You Read List and elaborate on the four components of emotional intelligence. a. Perceiving emotions (recognizing them in faces, music, and stories) b. Understanding emotions (predicting them, and understanding how they change and blend) c. Managing emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations) d. Using emotions (for adaptive or creative thinking) 2. How might each of the components listed above help or hinder someone involved in an unwanted break up of a relationship? Answers will vary Summarize the statistical information on the connection between brain size and intelligence. Recent studies indicate a +.33 correlation between brain size (adjusted for body size) and intelligence scores.

6 330 Module 60 Introduction to Intelligence Summarize the research findings on the connection between neural processing speed and intelligence. On some tasks, more intelligent people seem to have faster neural processing speed. Those who recognize same and different words in tests tend to score high in verbal ability. The correlation between intelligence scores and the speed of taking in perceptual information tends to be about +.3 to +.5 across many studies. Module 60 Review After You Read Complete the chart to see if you have mastered the basics. An Example of Someone Demonstrating Theory Brief Summary of the Theory This Proposed Intelligence Spearman s general intelligence (g) Basic or general (g) intelligence predicts our abilities in varied areas. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Justina adeptly drives a car, passes all of her exams, and delivers passionate, compelling speeches. Thurstone s primary abilities Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Adelle has strong verbal comprehension, word fluency, and scores high on her SAT tests. Gardner s multiple intelligences Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Having recently been elected president of his class, Chandler has strong interpersonal skills and is well-liked by his peers. Sternberg s triarchic theory Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict realworld success: analytical, creative, and practical. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Kate has never been in this part of the city before, but she draws upon her skills in map reading to navigate the streets.

7 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence Module Summary Before You Read Module 61 discusses the history of intelligence testing and distinguishes between aptitude and achievement tests. The meaning of standardization is explained, and validity and reliability in relation to testing is covered. The normal curve is also described. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms and names you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each. Key Terms Key Names mental age standardization Francis Galton Stanford-Binet normal curve Alfred Binet intelligence quotient (IQ) reliability Louis Terman achievement test validity David Wechsler aptitude test Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) content validity predictive validity Answer the following questions/prompts. While You Read Explain how Francis Galton attempted to measure intelligence. Discuss which of his assertions were disproved and which have shown a lasting impact on the study of intelligence. Galton thought to measure natural ability by assessing reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, and body proportion of more than 10,000 visitors of the 1884 London Exposition. He was unable to show correlations. He did give us some statistical techniques that are still in use and the phrase nature and nurture. 331

8 332 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence 2. Discuss the events leading up to Alfred Binet s commission to develop intelligence tests for French children. France instated compulsory education for all children around the turn of the twentieth century and many seemed unable to do the work. Rather than rely on the subjective reports of teachers, the French government commissioned Binet to devise an objective assessment of intelligence. 3. What components did Binet emphasize in his assessment of intelligence? Binet emphasized reasoning and problem solving. 4. Explain the relationship between mental age and chronological age. His idea of mental age was the level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age. The average 9-year-old should have a mental age of What were Binet s hopes and fears regarding the implementation of his test? He hoped it would improve children s education but feared it would be used to label children and limit their opportunities. 6. How did Binet believe that children could improve their intelligence scores? He recommended mental orthopedics that would help develop their attention span and self-discipline. 7. How did Lewis Terman revise Binet s original tests for use with American children? He added items, established new age norms, and extended the upper end of the test s range from teenagers to superior adults. 8. Compare and contrast Binet s and Terman s ideas on the importance of intelligence test results. Binet did not believe his intelligence test measured inborn intelligence, but Terman, initially at least, did believe that his revision of Binet s test took into account the inequalities of children in original endowment.

9 While You Read Practice using William Stern s IQ formula in the scenarios below. Begin by writing out his formula for calculating IQ in the space below. IQ = mental age chronological age x 100 Without using a calculator, show your work when calculating the IQ of a. a 10-year-old boy who answers questions at an 8-year-old level 80 b. a 6-year-old boy who answers questions at a 10-year-old level 166 c. a 7-year-old girl who answers questions at the 7-year-old level Discuss how the use and calculation of IQ scores has changed since Stern s formula was used. Most current intelligence tests no longer compute IQ in this manner, although the term IQ still lingers as a term for intelligence test score. Today, the score represents the test-taker s performance relative to the average performance of others the same age the average is assigned a score of 100 and about 2/3 of all scores fall between 85 and Explain the misuses and abuses of intelligence testing in our culture through the early 1900s. Intelligence testing has been used to encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce. Terman envisioned that the use of intelligence tests would ultimately result in curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency. Intelligence tests were also given to waves of immigrants and, obviously, since they did not speak the language or understand the culture and customs, they had low scores and were thought to be unintelligent. This led to the 1924 immigration law reducing the number of Southern and Eastern European immigrants that could enter the United States.

10 334 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence Give an example of a test you have taken that was a. an achievement test: Answers will vary. b. an aptitude test: Answers will vary. 2. Discuss the components and subsets of David Wechsler s intelligence test. How does it differ from the Stanford-Binet? The WAIS includes 15 subtests, including similarities, vocabulary, block design, and letter-number sequencing, among others. It is different from the Stanford-Binet in that it yields separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed What population should be used in order to standardize the AP Psychology exam you will be taking? After determining your population, explain how the exam can be standardized. The AP Psychology Exam is designed to assess your performance in a college-level introduction to psychology course; thus, it should be standardized using a population of freshman or sophomore college students taking introduction to psychology in college. The same test should be given to the college students and the AP students and the scores can then be meaningfully compared.

11 While You Read Draw and label a normal curve of intelligence scores in the space below. Include three standard deviations above and below the mean and the percentages that fall within one, two and three standard deviations. Refer to Figure when finished to check your work. Drawing should match Figure Why is the normal curve important to standardized testing? It describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. 4. Define the Flynn effect and describe the explanations that have been suggested for its occurrence. The Flynn effect shows that intelligence test performance has been improving since the 1930s. The cause has been a mystery, but people think it may be due partly to better nutrition, more education, more stimulating environments, less childhood diseases, and/or smaller families Why is reliability a key consideration in test development? What are two specific methods researchers utilize to measure the reliability of a test? In developing a test, it is important that it yield consistent results. To measure the reliability of a test, researchers use the test-retest method or the split-half method.

12 336 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence 2. In what way is validity different from reliability? Reliability tells us that the test yields consistent results; validity speaks to the extent to which the test measures what it intends to measure. 3. How can a test be reliable and yet invalid? A test can yield consistent results every time it is administered (reliability), but it may not measure or predict what it is supposed to (validity). 4. How does the content validity differ from predictive validity of a test? Give a real-life example of a test that demonstrates both content and predictive validity. Content validity is the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest; predictive validity is the success with which the test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. Real-life examples will differ. 5. Explain how a test can lose its predictive validity. A test can lose its predictive validity when we validate it using a wide range of people but then use it with a restricted range of people. Module 61 Review After You Read Answer the following questions to see if you have mastered the basics. 1. When and why were intelligence tests created? Western attempts to assess intelligence differences began over a century ago in the mid-late 1800s. Alfred Binet s work with intelligence tests began in 1904 to identify children who were in need of special help.

13 After You Read Alfred Binet referred to children s actual age in years as their performance ability level as their mental age. chronological age and their 3. The rising average intelligence test score over the last century is referred to as the. 4. The Advanced Placement exam you will take this year is an example of an achievement test. Flynn effect 5. The researcher credited with adapting and revising Binet s original test for use with American children is a. Francis Galton. b. Charles Darwin. c. Louis Terman. d. William Stern. e. David Wechsler. 6. A test-taker is asked to use four white and red shaded geometric blocks to make patterns. The tester is most likely taking the a. Stanford-Binet. b. MMPI. c. Stern-Terman. d. WAIS. e. Achievement Test. 7. A researcher who wishes to be sure her personality test for teen introversion is accepted in the field initially gives it to a representative sample of teens to establish a base line performance score. This researcher is in the process of a. making the test reliable. b. establishing the aptitude quotient. c. validating the test. d. establishing the achievement quotient. e. standardizing the test. 8. Draw and label the normal curve of intelligence scores in the space below. Once finished, use it to answer questions 9 and 10. Number of scores About 95 percent of all people fall within 30 points of % About 68 percent of people score within 15 points above or below % 0.1% 2% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2% 0.1% Wechsler intelligence score

14 338 Module 61 Assessing Intelligence 9. According to your normal curve from #8, a score of 115 is higher than what percentage of scores? a. 68% b. 95% c. 2% d. 84% e. 81.5% 10. According to your normal curve from #8, approximately 99% of scores fall between which two scores on an intelligence test? a b c d. 145 and beyond e Gwen is attempting to produce a solid intelligence test that will give dependable and consistent results each time it is taken. She gives her prototype test to one group then retests them one week later. Gwen is attempting to prove the test s a. reliability. b. validity. c. standardization. d. Flynn effect. e. normality. 12. Cynthia is preparing for her semester exam in biology. Her instructor has covered 7 units and Cynthia expects to see material from all 7 units on the exam. When over one-half of the exam deals with the life cycle of the Amazon tree frog, Cynthia is upset. Her dissatisfaction with the exam comes primarily due the exam s lack of a. predictive validity. b. aptitude validity. c. content validity. d. split-half reliability. e. test-retest reliability.

15 Module 62 The Dynamics of Intelligence Module Summary Before You Read Module 62 discusses the changes in crystallized and fluid intelligence that occur with age. Studies comparing intelligence over the decades are presented to prove that intelligence is stable over time. The traits of those at the low and high extremes of intelligence are discussed. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each. Key Terms cohort crystallized intelligence fluid intelligence intellectual disability Down syndrome While You Read Answer the following questions/prompts Summarize the cross-sectional evidence for intellectual decline. Researchers compare people of various ages at one point in time and have found that older adults give fewer correct answers on intelligence tests than do younger adults. Wechsler concluded that the decline of mental ability with age is part of the general aging process of the organism as a whole. 339

16 340 Module 62 The Dynamics of Intelligence 2. How did the longitudinal studies begun in the 1920s challenge the findings of cross-sectional evidence discussed earlier? Psychologists retested the same cohort over a period of years and found that until late in life, intelligence remained stable on some tests it even increased. 3. Explain how our crystallized and fluid intelligence differ as we age. Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests increases up to old age. Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly as when solving novel logic problems decreases beginning in the twenties and thirties, slowly up to age 75 or so, then more rapidly, especially after age List several tasks and skills which older people perform better than younger individuals. Older adults show increased social reasoning, taking multiple perspectives, appreciating knowledge limits, and offering helpful wisdom. 5. Explain the evidence that supports the claim that intelligence remains stable over the life span. By age 4, children s performance on intelligence tests begins to predict their adolescent and adult scores; the consistency of scores over time increases with the age of the child. In Scotland, Deary et al. conducted longitudinal studies on over 87,000 people. Around age 11, they were all given an intelligence test, and 65 years later those results were compared to a retesting of the 542 survivors of the original test. The correlation was significant Discuss the two components required before a label of intellectual disability can be applied to a child. A person must have both a low intelligence test score (two standard deviations below the mean) and difficulty adapting to the normal demands of independent living.

17 While You Read What is one of the challenges of creating strict cutoffs for labeling an individual as intellectually disabled? A strict cutoff of an intelligence test score can be an arbitrary marker. What is to distinguish a person who scores a 68 from one who scores a 70? 3. Explain how the Flynn effect may be correlated with changes in independent living for those with an intellectual disability. Over time, as tests are periodically restandardized, the mean and standard deviation change. As such, a person who scored near 70 on an earlier version of the test might now score 63 on the same test, and two people with the same ability level could thus be classified differently based on when they were tested. As boundaries shift, more people become eligible for special education services. 4. Discuss Lewis Terman s work with his Termites. What were his findings? The Termites were the people in Lewis Terman s study group over seven decades. These were highscoring children who he followed longitudinally. Most of the Termites went on to attain high levels of education and became doctors, lawyers, and professors, for example. 5. Explain how recent studies of math and verbal whiz kids support Terman s findings. A recent study of precocious youths who aced the math SAT exam at age 13 were at age 33 twice as likely to have patents as were those in the bottom quarter of the top 1 percent. Compared with the math aces, verbal whiz kids were more likely to have become humanities professors or written a novel. Module 62 Review After You Read Select the best answer to see if you have mastered the basics. 1. In an experiment to test the cognitive abilities of various age groups, a researcher forms four groups of equal numbers of participants. Those aged are in Group 1, in Group 2, in Group 3, and in Group 4. The researcher is utilizing which method to test his hypothesis? a. naturalistic observation b. cross-sectional c. case study d. longitudinal e. survey

18 342 Module 62 The Dynamics of Intelligence 2. If Roger is in his late 70s, which task is he likely to have difficulty with? a. Recalling mnemonic devices for the names of the five Great Lakes. b. Naming the original thirteen colonies. c. Reading the Sunday newspaper and understanding what he read. d. Playing Scrabble with his grandchildren. e. Coming up with as many uses for a brick as he can think of. 3. Roger is a retired math professor in his 70s and is curious about the cognitive changes he might experience in this stage of life. Advise Roger on the changes he can expect in his a. fluid intelligence: Roger s ability to reason speedily and abstractly has been decreasing slowly and will continue to decrease slowly for another 10 or so years, and then decline rapidly. b. crystallized intelligence: Roger should see no decrease in his accumulated knowledge or his ability to recall vocabulary or perform analogies and might even experience an increase in these abilities. 4. How might longitudinal versus cross sectional studies provide a different picture of Roger s aging? Cross-sectional studies might suggest that Roger s cognitive abilities will be below those of people younger than he. However, longitudinal studies will demonstrate that Roger should see no change and that his intelligence and cognitive abilities will remain relatively stable. 5. How might socioeconomic status impact Roger s aging? If Roger grew up in a wealthier environment, he likely had access to more education and opportunity, and thus his aging might not be as severe as if he was limited in his abilities based on his socioeconomic status.

19 Module 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence Module Summary Before You Read Module 63 discusses the evidence for a genetic influence on intelligence and explains what is meant by heritability. The module also discusses the evidence for environmental influences on intelligence. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following term and name you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each. Key Term heritability Key Name Carol Dweck While You Read Answer the following questions/prompts In Module 14 (Unit III), the concept of heritability was discussed. Refresh your memory by defining heritability in your own words. Answers will vary. 2. Explain why the heritability of intelligence can range from 50 percent to 80 percent. Heritability is a measure of the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes. The range indicates the amount of role the environment plays in explaining those differences. 343

20 344 Module 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 3. How do you account for heritability in your own levels of intelligence? Heritability is not a measure of how much of your individual intelligence is due to your genes it is a measure of how much the difference between your intelligence and others intelligence can be attributed to genes. 4. Using the data presented in Figure 63.1, explain why siblings raised together would have a lower correlation of intelligence scores than fraternal twins raised together. Fraternal twins are genetically no more similar than biological siblings. However, fraternal twins do share identical womb environments and likely very similar childhood environments, so their intelligence scores would be more correlated with each other. 5. Discuss the findings of behavior geneticists with regard to the heritability of intelligence in adoptive children and their families. During childhood, the intelligence test scores of adoptive siblings correlate modestly. Over time, adopted children accumulate experience in their differing adoptive families; however, genetic influences become more apparent as we accumulate life experience so mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane with age Compare the varying effects of early enrichment on the development of intelligence. In what instances does early intervention contribute to intelligence and in what instances do we see little or no impact? Among those economically impoverished, environmental conditions can depress cognitive development. Researchers trained caregivers to play language-fostering games with 11 infants and by 22 months of age, infants could name more than 50 objects and body parts. Although malnutrition, sensory deprivation, and social isolation can retard normal brain development, there is no environmental recipe for fast forwarding a normal infant into a genius.

21 While You Read How does epigenetics (which you learned about in Module 14) explain the weaving together of genes and experience in intelligence? Genes have the potential to influence the development of intelligence, but the environment can trigger them on or off. Environmental factors such as diet, drugs, and stress can effect the epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression. 3. Explain how schooling influences the development of intelligence. Schooling is one intervention that pays intelligence score dividends. Being exposed to new material, given many opportunities to work with that material, being among like-minded peers, and so on, all foster the development of intelligence. 4. Discuss Carol Dweck s contention that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a fixed mindset. If one believes that intelligence cannot be changed, one may not further their education or take opportunities for cognitive growth. Having a growth mindset and believing intelligence is changeable result in a focus on learning and growing. 5. Do you think intelligence is a fixed mindset or a growth mindset? Explain. Answers will vary.

22 346 Module 63 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence Module 63 Review After You Read Answer the following questions to see if you have mastered the basics. Similarity of intelligence scores (correlation) Identical twins raised together Identical twins raised apart Fraternal twins raised together Siblings raised together Unrelated individuals raised together Use the graph above to answer questions 1 and Janelle and Chantelle are identical twins but grew up in different homes. Janelle s score on an intelligence test is 134. What can you predict about Chantelle s intelligence test score? Provide a rational explanation based on your reading. There is a 0.70 correlation between identical twins scores when they are reared apart. It is likely Chantelle s score will be near Janelle s, that is to say in the high range, but environment will be a factor as they were reared separately. 2. Timothy and Kristen are both adopted children living in the Murphy s home. They are unrelated. Kristen has an intelligence test score of 101. What can you predict about Timothy s intelligence test score? Unrelated individuals living together have a very low 0.30 correlation between their intelligence scores. There is no real way to tell what Timothy s score will be. Environment certainly impacted both of them, but they share no genetic commonality. 3. Your father tells you he will not pay for you to take additional classes in college although you are hoping to double-major and pursue as many courses as possible in your time there. Use the findings of Carol Dweck to formulate an argument to convince your father that his money will be well-spent. Dweck reports that a growth mindset results in a focus on learning and growing, and thinks of the brain like a muscle that grows stronger with use as neural connections grow. Effort and practice, coupled with a growth mindset, lead to happy flourishing.

23 While You Read 347 Module 64 Group Differences and the Question of Bias Module Summary Before You Read Module 64 describes research of gender and racial differences in mental ability scores. The question of bias in intelligence tests is discussed. Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following term you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each. Key Term stereotype threat Answer the following questions/prompts. While You Read Summarize the findings of various researchers regarding differing intellectual abilities of girls versus boys. In the 1932 testing of the Scottish children, boys and girls average intelligence test scores were the same. Generally speaking, there are typically more differences among girls and among boys than there are between boys and girls, but researchers and the general public find sex differences more intriguing to focus on. Some studies have shown girls to have stronger spelling scores and higher verbal fluency and boys to have higher spatial abilities and math computation skills. 2. How do biological and sociological (nature and nurture) factors play a role in these differing abilities? Some evolutionary arguments still exist to explain some males higher spatial skills and some females higher memory skills, but sociological factors play a much greater role in these differing abilities. Gender inequities worldwide play a large role in the access and support boys and girls receive to develop skills outside their prescribed gender roles. Societies that are more gender-neutral, such as Sweden, exhibit little of the gender math gap shown in gender-unequal societies, such as the United States. 347

24 348 Module 64 Group Differences and the Question of Bias Summarize the findings of various researchers regarding differing intellectual abilities in racial and ethnic groups. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores. Also, high-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income. European-New Zealanders outscore native Maori New Zealanders; White Americans tend to outscore Black Americans, and so on. Group differences in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental, however. 2. Using the following figure, explain why the flowers in the garden box to the right have grown larger than the flowers in the left garden box. Describe the heritability of height in this example. Seeds Poor soil Fertile soil The same seeds (genes) have been planted in each soil container, but the container on the right has more fertile soil (environment) and thus the flowers are able to grow taller. The differences in height between the two containers is thus not due to genes (the seeds) but to the environment (the soil condition). We could predict that the heritability of height between the two containers is closer to Using the figure above, explain why certain flowers in the left garden box are taller than other flowers in that same box. Describe the heritability of height in this example. The difference between the heights of the flowers in the same box is likely due to seed quality (genes) since they all had the same soil condition (environment). We could predict that the heritability is closer to 100 percent (or 1.0) in this situation.

25 While You Read Explain and compare the two meanings of bias in a test. Use examples to illustrate your comparison. A test is considered biased if it detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also performance differences caused by cultural experiences. For instance, Eastern European immigrants to the United States appeared feeble-minded when taking an intelligence test because they were unfamiliar with the language, customs, and culture of the test. The second meaning of bias its scientific meaning hinges on a test s validity whether it predicts future behavior only for some groups of test-takers. If the SAT predicted the college achievement of women but not men, it would be biased. 2. If you suspect that a test is biased against a given group of individuals, how can you test this belief? Compare the test results to future performance to see if the test had predictive validity. 3. Using examples from the text, explain how the stereotype threat hijacks mental performance for minority groups. When reminded of their race right before taking a verbal aptitude test, Blacks performed worse than Whites. When taking a math test, women performed worse than men unless led to expect that women usually do as well. If when taking a test, you are worried that your group/type often doesn t do well, your self-doubts and self-monitoring may hijack your working memory and impair your performance. 4. Suggest two ways that stereotype threat could be reduced in testing situations. Answers will vary.

26 350 Module 64 Group Differences and the Question of Bias Module 64 Review After You Read Answer the following questions to see if you have mastered the basics. 1. You are good friends with a girl in your class who believes that girls are much smarter than boys. Since you are studying psychology and intelligence, what can you tell her? The average intelligence between the sexes is almost identical. There are some studies that show differences in particular skills, such as verbal fluency, spatial ability, detecting emotion, and sensitivity to touch, taste, and color. 2. A teacher in your school tells you that boys are evolutionarily built for hunting and girls are evolutionarily built for gathering. What evidence can you provide to support that statement? What evidence can you provide to refute this statement? Males tend to have an edge in spatial ability tests, which may have aided in tracking prey and returning home. Females tend to have keen memory for location of items, which may have aided them in remembering where the medicinal or nutritious plants were located. Evidence to refute this statement will vary. Example evidence to refute: Males outperform girls in spatial ability tasks, which would have been handy when deciding how to pack and store gatherable items; also, females tend to have stronger verbal skills, and communication is necessary when hunting in groups. 3. Your friend believes that all intelligence tests are biased as they only reflect the environment and experiences you have been exposed to. Another friend responds that intelligence tests are not biased. Since you are taking psychology, how can you respond to your friends? In the popular sense, tests are biased because of their assumptions for instance, assuming one knows what a cup and saucer are. In the scientific sense, tests are not biased because they do have a predictive validity for all groups taking them. So both friends are correct. 4. Explain why heredity may contribute to individual differences in intelligence but not necessarily contribute to group differences. Heredity the genes you inherit from your biological parents may contribute to your intelligence, while your friend s genetic inheritance may make her intelligence different. Group differences may be much more due to environment culture, socioeconomic status, stereotypes, and so on.

27 Check Yourself Check Yourself Now that you have mastered the basics, work through the problems below to see if you can synthesize, evaluate, and analyze what you have learned. Justin is an unusually bright seventh grade student who is being tested for acceptance into a school for gifted children. He has taken one intelligence test three times and received the scores of 150, 149, and 150. Justin is an accomplished and recognized violist, and has been invited to perform with the National Symphony Orchestra. He has many friends and is so well-liked in his school that he won the election for class president. As president, Justin has presented some cool new ideas for homework help, class service projects and an innovative way to move the lunch trays through the cafeteria. However, he is also known to be a silly kid who forgets his lunch quite frequently, gets lost in the halls of the school and often does not have his assignments or materials for class. His parents worry that despite his IQ, his distracted habits may inhibit his future success. Answer the following questions with specific information from the scenario above to support your response. 1. What is the relationship of Justin s intelligence test scores to other scores on the normal curve? His score of 150 is outside the 99 percent of scores that fall in the normal curve. 2. Which two of Gardner s multiple intelligences does Justin seem to possess? musical NSO and recognized violinist interpersonal many friends, well-liked, class president 3. How would you assess Justin s three components of intelligence as Robert Sternberg would identify them? high analytical intelligence high IQ scores high creative intelligence new ideas for homework, service, and the lunch trays low practical intelligence forgets his lunch, gets lost in school, does not have assignments or materials for class 4. How reliable are the intelligence tests Justin has taken? high reliability test-retest scores similar (150, 149, 150)

28 352 Unit XI Testing and Individual Differences Before You Move On Use the checklist below to verify your understanding of the unit s main points. Can I define intelligence and lists characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence using Abstract versus verbal measures Speed of processing Can I discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence? Can I compare and contrast the historic and contemporary theories of intelligence of: Charles Spearman Howard Gardner Robert Sternberg Can I explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity? How do I interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve? Can I describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing such as: Gifted Intellectually disabled Can I debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair test uses? Can I identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing such as: Alfred Binet Francis Galton Howard Gardner Charles Spearman Robert Sternberg Louis Terman David Wechsler