A continuing intellectual dialogue in which thinkers strive for increased understanding. The Evolution of Ideas. The evolution of thought - dialectic

Transcription

1 What is Psychology? Unit One Understanding Psychology Psychology is the study of mental processes, behavior, and the relationship between them. Natural & Social Science Psychology is a natural science because it is concerned with laws of nature Psychology is a social science because it involves the study of the laws of the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of humans and other organisms The Evolution of Ideas Georg Hegel The evolution of thought - dialectic Dialectic A continuing intellectual dialogue in which thinkers strive for increased understanding

2 Dialectic: Nature vs. Nuture Thesis Dialectic Synthesis Antithesis Thesis: Early 20 th century researchers emphasized role of biological factors on behavior (nature) Antithesis: 1960s & 1970s heavy emphasis on environment (nurture) Synthesis: By the end of the century, most scientists realize both nature and nurture are important. Historical Dialectic of Psychology Old Ideas = Springboards Thesis: Scientific problems are best solved by rational thought (e.g., Descartes) Antithesis: Scientific problems are best solved by empirical observations (e.g., Locke) Synthesis: Scientific problems are best solved by combination of rational thought & empirical observations (e.g., Kant) Even when we reject ideas as outdated, they still move us forward They act as the thesis to our innovative antithesis Four Major Themes Four Major Themes 1. Are the mind and body separate entities or are they united? 2. To what extent can we learn about psychological phenomena by studying biology and to what extent must we learn about it by studying behavior? 3. To what extent is our developed set of skills the result of innate capabilities and to what extent are skills acquired through experience? 4. To what extent do skills and knowledge hold true across domains and to what extent are they specific to such domains?

3 Domain General Domain Specific Knowledge and skills that are general across domains Knowledge and skills that are specific to individual domains Roots of Psychology B.C. Ancient Greece and Rome Philosophy a means of exploring and understanding the general nature of many aspects of the world, primarily through introspection Physiology the scientific study of living organisms and of life-sustaining functions and processes, primarily through observation Roots of Psychology In ancient Greece, the two fields did not differ much. Both philosophers and physiologists believed that understanding could be reached without observations Hippocrates B.C. Father of medicine Differed from philosophers and physicians of the day through his unorthodox belief that disease was not a punishment from the gods.

4 Hippocrates B.C. Speculated that biological malfunctions, not demons, caused mental illness. Hippocrates B.C. Used empirical observations to study medicine Saw the mind as a separate distinct entity that controlled the body Thought the body was composed of physical substance, whereas the mind is ethereal (spiritual) Hippocrates B.C. Mind-Body Dualism Proposed the mind resides in the brain. Based upon observations that when either side of the brain was injured, spasms were observed in the opposite side of the body. The philosophical belief that the mind is qualitatively different from the body. Plato vs. Aristotle Contemporaries of Hippocrates. Two very different views of reality Plato on Reality Reality does not exist in the concrete objects that we see and touch, but reality only exists in the ideal, abstract forms of the objects in a timeless dimension of pure thought in our minds

5 Aristotle on Reality Aristotle on Reality Reality lies only in the concrete world of objects. Plato s abstract forms were only derivations of the concrete objects. Did not believe in dualism. Believed the mind does not exist in its own right, merely a by-product of anatomical and physiological activity. Empiricist Rationalist One who believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical methods, obtaining evidence through experience, observation, and experimentation. One who asserts that knowledge is most effectively acquired through logical methods, using philosophical analysis to understand the world and people s relation to it. Empiricist vs. Rationalist Both approaches have merit The Renaissance Period

6 The Renaissance The Scientific Method The birth of science as we know it Direct observation was established as the basis for knowledge Theory should guide and give meaning to observations But theories should be amended or abandoned, based upon observations Identify a specific problem or question Formulate a hypothesis Collect data through observation and experiment Analyze the data Rene Descartes ( ) The Early Modern Period French philosopher Agreed with Plato s rationalist view that the introspective, reflective method was better than the empirical method. Rene Descartes ( ) John Locke ( ) Believed in mindbody dualism Believed that man has innate (versus acquired) knowledge British empiricist philosopher Believed humans born without knowledge and therefore seek knowledge through empirical observation

7 John Locke ( ) Immanuel Kant ( ) His term for the human condition is tabula rasa, meaning blank slate in Latin Experience writes knowledge upon us German philosopher Believed the quest for understanding the mental processes required both rationalism and empiricism working together Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt ( ) First major school of thought in Psychology Goal was to understand the mind by analyzing its elements, such as particular sensations or thoughts. Less interested in how people think than in what they think German, considered by many to be the founder of modern psychology Forerunner to structuralism Method of study a form of self-observation called introspection Wundt Laboratory in Leipzig Edward Titchner ( ) Wundt set up the first laboratory for the study of psychology, but was limited to introspection as the sole method of research. Studied under Wundt, then later at Cornell University Became a leader in structuralism with views similar, but not identical to Wundt s

8 Edward Titchner ( ) And too rigidly tied to a single methodology: introspection Structuralism died out, but gave rise to functionalism Edward Titchner ( ) He changed his mind about structuralism later in life It proposed too many elementary sensations, no means for understanding thought processes THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT By John Godfrey Saxe It was six men of Indostan To learning much inclined, Who went to see the Elephant (Though all of them were blind), That each by observation Might satisfy his mind. By John Godfrey Saxe The First approach'd the Elephant, And happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: "God bless me! but the Elephant Is very like a wall!" THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT By John Godfrey Saxe The Second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, -"Ho! what have we here So very round and smooth and sharp? To me 'tis mighty clear This wonder of an Elephant Is very like a spear!" By John Godfrey Saxe The Third approached the animal, And happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up and spake: "I see," quoth he, "the Elephant Is very like a snake!"

9 THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT By John Godfrey Saxe The Fourth reached out his eager hand, And felt about the knee. "What most this wondrous beast is like Is mighty plain," quoth he, "'Tis clear enough the Elephant Is very like a tree!" By John Godfrey Saxe The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said: "E'en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an Elephant Is very like a fan!" THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT By John Godfrey Saxe The Sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Then, seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, "I see," quoth he, "the Elephant Is very like a rope!" By John Godfrey Saxe And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong! Functionalism Functionalism First U.S.-born movement in Psychology Focuses on active psychological processes rather than on passive psychological structures or elements Ask the questions: What do people do, and why do they do it? Functionalists view humans as actively engaged in processing their sensations and formulating their actions Agree on questions to ask, but are widely diverse in the methods for finding those answers and in the answers they find.

10 William James ( ) William James ( ) Leader in the functionalist movement, guided functionalism toward pragmatism (a view of science and psychology that asserts that knowledge is validated by its usefulness). Author of the very influential book Principles of Psychology (1890) Influence of Functionalism Associationism Functionalism, like structuralism did not survive as an organized school of thought However, its influence remains widespread today, particularly in specializations that stress flexibility in research or the practical use of results. More an influential way of thinking than a rigid school of psychology Mainly interested in middle- to higherlevel mental processes such as learning. Opposite of structuralism that insisted on studying only elementary sensations Associationism Hermann Ebbinghaus ( ) Associationism examines how events or ideas can become associated in the mind, thereby resulting in learning. First experimenter to apply associationist principles systematically. Studied the effect of repetition on memory and learning.

11 Hermann Ebbinghaus ( ) Edwin Guthrie ( ) He only used himself as a subject Made break-through discovery about the role of active rehearsal (conscious repetition) in recollection. Guthrie did further work on Ebbinghaus ideas, testing animals. Showed that two observed events become associated through temporal contiguity Edward Lee Thorndike ( ) The Law of Effect Held that satisfaction rather than Guthrie s temporal contiguity is the key to forming associations. Called this principle the Law of Effect Over time the actions ( the effect ) for which an organism is rewarded ( the satisfaction ) are strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again in the future. In contrast, actions that are followed by punishment, are weakened, less likely to occur again in the future. Influences of Associationism Ebbinghaus, Guthrie & Thorndike followed functionalist tradition of using various methods in research. Associationism in its strictest form has not survived because too simplistic Has had an influence on behaviorism Psychology In the 20 th Century

12 Mary Whiton Calkins ( ) Mary Whiton Calkins ( ) A forerunner of cognitivism. Argued that the self should be studied in its social context. Unable to attain a PhD because most schools refused to allow women at the time. Attended classes at Harvard & Clark as nonstudent. She became first female president of both the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association Ivan Pavlov ( ) Nobel prize-winning Russian physiologist Discovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs Classical Conditioning Discovered accidentally in 1927 by Ivan Pavlov while studying the process of digestion in dogs. Wanted to understand how a dog s stomach prepares to digest food when something is placed in its mouth. Classical Conditioning Discovered that the mere sight or smell of food was enough to get the dog to start salivating. Pavlov s Experiment Pavlov rang a tuning fork and then immediately placed meat powder on the dog s tongue. After a few repetitions, the dog would salivate as soon as it heard the tuning fork, even if the meat powder was not placed on his tongue.

13 Pavlov s Experiment Neutral stimulus The tuning fork, something that had nothing to do with the response to meat prior to conditioning Pavlov s Experiment Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) an event that leads to a certain, predictable response without prior training. Food leads to salivation without the dog needed to be trained to salivate when smelling meat. Pavlov s Experiment Unconditioned response (UCR) a reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented. Conditioned stimulus (CS) an ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation. Pavlov s Experiment Conditioned response (CR) the response to a conditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning classical conditioning Controlling an animal s or a person s responses in such a way that an old response becomes attached to a new stimulus Occurs gradually Each pairing of the CS with the UCS strengthens the conditioning Timing is an issue. Conditioning is strongest when the CS is introduced just before the UCS +

14 Behaviorism John Watson ( ) Psychology should focus only on the relationship between the observable behavior and the environmental events or stimuli. Conjectures about internal thoughts and ways of thinking are just speculation American founder of radical behaviorism Any behavior can be shaped or controlled John Watson ( ) B.F. Skinner ( ) "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee you to take any one at random, and train him or her to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, merchant chief and, yes, even beggar man or thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors." Radical behaviorism in modern times most closely tied to the work of Skinner Distinguished between two kinds of learned behavior: respondent & operant B.F. Skinner ( ) Respondent behavior, the type studied by Pavlov, elicited by a definite stimulus, involuntary B.F. Skinner ( ) Operant behavior, cannot be certainly elicited, largely voluntary, probability of behavior repeated when reinforced

15 Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer ( ) Psychological phenomenon are best understood when viewed as organized, structured wholes that is, holistically not when analyzed into myriad components. Movement grew as a reaction to behaviorism and structuralism Started the Gestalt movement with fellow German psychologists Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler. Gestalt Psychology Criticism Cognitivism Has produced an abundance of theory and very little data. Experimentation under the Gestalt approach tends to lack careful experimental controls. Unprecise definition of terms Emphasizes the importance of thought as a basis for understanding much of human behavior The study of how people learn, structure, store, and use knowledge (Neisser, 1967) Cognitivism Biological Psychology How is knowledge acquired, stored, transformed, and used? What is consciousness, and where do conscious ideas originate? What is the nature of perception and memory? What is thought? How do these abilities develop? Also called psychobiology Attempts to study behavior by carefully studying physiology (the scientific study of living organisms and life-sustaining functions) and anatomy (the study of the structures of living organisms)

16 Biological Psychology Biological Psychology Not really an organized school of thought but rather the affirmation that biological theorizing and experimentation are desirable bases for studying psychological problems One psychobiological approach is to study what parts of the brain are responsible for the origination, learning and expression of particular behaviors, feelings, or kinds of thoughts Biological Psychology Behavioral genetics attributes behavior and underlying traits in part to the influence of particular combinations of genes as expressed in a particular environment Biological Psychology For example, a behavioral geneticist may attempt to identify which genetic elements contribute to mental illness, creativity, etc. Molecular genetics attempting to find specific genes that contribute to mental processes and behavior. Human Genome Project Biological Psychology Evolutionary Psychology The biopsychosocial model A paradigm for health care in which the focus is on the understanding of the various psychological, social, and biological factors that contribute to illness, recovery from illness, and promotion of wellness. Based upon Darwin s theory of natural selection and evolution (1859), the goal is to explain behavior in terms of an organism s evolved adaptations to a constantly changing environmental landscape

17 Psychodynamic Psychology Sigmund Freud ( ) One of the oldest and most controversial and influential schools of psychology. Emphasizes the importance of conflicting unconscious mental processes Stresses the importance of early childhood experiences on the adult personality Developed by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud Major contributions Significance of unconscious and dreams Free association Defense mechanisms Levels of Consciousness Conscious = Tip of Iceberg Conscious - current awareness Preconscious - not aware of material but it s retrievable (via ordinary retrieval) Unconscious - not aware of material but it s not retrievable (via ordinary retrieval) The Structure of Personality The Structure of Personality The Id Reservoir of Psychic Energy ID SUPEREGO EGO Most primitive part of the mind; what we are born with Source of all drives and urges Operates according to the pleasure principle and primary process thinking

18 The Structure of Personality The Ego- Executive of Personality The part of the mind that constrains the id to reality Develops around 2-3 years of age Operates according to the reality principle and secondary process thinking Mediates between id, superego, and environment The Structure of Personality The Superego- Upholder of Values and Ideals The part of the mind that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society Develops around age 5 Not bound by reality Neo-Freudians Humanistic Psychology Several of Freud s disciples who rebelled and formulated their own versions of the theory. A greater emphasis on conscious as opposed to unconscious processing Influence of key human relationships on how one views the world In response to that rather negative view of psychodynamic theory which sees man controlled by environmental events in his childhood Humanistic psychology emphasizes free will and the importance of human potential Humanistic Psychology Humanistic Psychology Holistic rather than analytical approach Emphasizes conscious rather than unconscious experience in development An analytic approach like that of Freud s attempts to break down a personality into its constituent components Humanistic approach doesn t attempt to divide a personality into smaller elements Argues that the essence of the personality is lost through such divisions

19 Abraham Maslow ( ) Self-Actualized have in common A leading humanistic psychologist Proposed that all people possess an innate drive toward self-actualization (striving to reach their potential) An objective view of reality, acceptance of their nature (both of their strengths and their weaknesses) A commitment to their work A need for autonomy, coupled with empathy for humankind Resistance to blind conformity, and drive to be creative in work and in life Carl Rogers ( ) Carl Rogers ( ) Followed Maslow s emphasis on selfactualization, but stressed that it was dependent upon the relationship between the mother and child If the mother meets the child s need for unconditional love (unconditional positive regard), the child will probably be welladjusted. Many of the problems we have as adults are due to a lack of positive regard Humanistic Psychology Humanistic approach has provided valuable insight into human nature It s theories are somewhat less comprehensive than some other approaches Research base supporting this approach is somewhat limited Fields of Study Today in Psychology

20 Psychobiology Cognitive Psychology Biological structures and processes underlying thought, feeling, motivation, and behavior What neurochemicals are active in the brain when a person feels depressed or pleasure? What brain structures active when people perceive a three-dimensional object? How messages are sent to and from the brain How people perceive, learn, remember How one remembers and forgets Thinking during problem-solving How people use language Developmental Psychology Neuropsychology How people develop over time through the processes of maturation and learning Development of mental abilities and social skills At what age is it easiest/hardest to learn a second language? Bases of behavior in the nervous system, particularly the brain Biological bases of perception, learning, memory, emotion, motivation and other phenomena Social Psychology Personality Psychology How people interact as individuals and in groups Attraction, prejudice, persuasion, conformity, violence Personal dispositions that lead people to behave the way they do Pinpoint and measure personality traits How much does personality change over time?

21 Clinical Psychology Cultural Psychology Understanding and treating abnormal behavior May offer therapy or do research Extends the study of psychological topics to all cultures Compare behavior in multiple cultures Health Psychology Educational Psychology Seeks to understand the reciprocal interaction between the psychological processes of the mind and the physical health of the body How does a positive or negative attitude effect recovery from an illness? Uses psychology to develop and improve curricula, testing, school administration and classroom teaching techniques School Psychology Organizational Psychology Uses psychology to diagnose psychologically based problems of children in school and to recommend, where possible, means of correcting or at least coping with these problems Applies psychology to the workplace, understanding organizations and making decisions about employees and hiring

22 Engineering Psychology Forensic Psychology Deals with human interaction with machines and how to manufacture machinery, instrumentation and computers to make them user-friendly. Applies psychology to the legal system Validity of eyewitness testimony Jury selection Relevance of psychological disorders to guilt or innocence Political Psychology Positive Psychology Applies principles of social psychology to political issues such as voter behavior in elections, behavior of political leaders, and mass political movements Very new field which studies valued human experiences such as well-being, contentment, optimism and happiness.