RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS

Transcription

1 RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS What do psychologists study? The ABCs (emotion) E.g., emotional reactions to stimuli, ideas, and oneself, emotional disorders, manipulating emotions, etc Behavior E.g., behavioral reactions, learning, disorders, impulse control, etc (thoughts) E.g., conscious and unconscious attitudes, schemas, memory, etc What do psychologists study? What affects the ABCs, creating differences between individuals, groups, and societies? Genetics Biology (e.g., brain functioning) The mind (e.g., subjective worldview) Other individuals Groups one belongs to (ingroups) Other groups (outgroups) Institutions (e.g., government, schools) Culture Etc, etc, etc 1

2 What do psychologists study? Variables anything that varies Independent ( ) variables Factor predicted to affect ABCs Dependent (measured) variables Measures of ABCs that are predicted to be affected Extraneous ( ) variables Unmeasured and often unnoticed variables that affect the DV Hopefully controlled in experiments so that it doesn t bias the results Independent vs. Dependent Variables What is beautiful is good: Physical attractiveness on first impressions of personality Effects of adult attachment on brain mechanisms of cognitive control On angry leaders and agreeable followers: How leaders emotions and followers personalities shape motivation and team performance Aspects of Variables Independent variables consist of levels different groups or conditions Experimenter determines how many levels they want to study Example of groups In study on effects of gender: 2 levels = female or male In study on effects of schizophrenia: 4 levels = no schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia, disorganized schizophrenia, undifferentiated schizophrenia 2

3 Aspects of Variables combinations of different groups or conditions Example: In study on effects of gender and schizophrenia on Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) IVs Schizophrenia Levels No Paran. Disorg. Undiff. Gender Female Male Cells Aspects of Variables Dependent variables consist of values Value different responses on a measure between levels or cells Schizophrenia No Paran. Disorg. Undiff. Gender Female Male The Steps of Science - taking observations of people, groups or society and turning them into theories E.g., Attractive people tend to smell good - an explanation of how a certain phenomena arises E.g., Attractive people tend to smell good, because good genes cause both physical attractiveness and a wonderfully pleasant body odor 3

4 The Steps of Science Induction Observations à Theory Deduction From the theory, forming a hypothesis an prediction that can be tested with data (e.g., experiment, observation, public records, etc.) E.g., Physically attractive people should be rated as better smelling than unattractive people At this point, the hypothesis is too vaguely worded to be tested Making the Hypothesis Testable Hypothesis = Physically attractive people should be rated as better smelling than unattractive people To make the hypothesis testable, we have to define exactly how everything will be measured Constructs we need to measure How physically attractive people are How good people smell how a variable will be manipulated or measured Forming Operational Definitions Hypothesis = Physically attractive people should be rated as better smelling than unattractive people Defining physical attractiveness Have anonymous judges rate set of confederates on attractiveness on a scale from 1 (barf!) 10 (nice!) Defining better smelling Have participants rate the confederates on how good they smell on a scale from 1 (Dutch-oven!) 10 (tasty!) 4

5 6/15/17 Forming Operational Definitions Hypothesis = Physically attractive people should be rated as better smelling than unattractive people Experimental design: Attractiveness Smell Scale: Low: 1-3 High: 10 High: ? 1 10? Independent Variable Dependent Variable Conduct an Experiment Get participants/confederates: 100 undergrads Select 20 attractive confederates Select 20 unattractive confederates Conduct an Experiment Develop a : 1. Have attractive/unattractive participants wear a shirt all day They all use the same non-scented deodorant They then seal the shirt in a plastic bag 5

6 Conduct an Experiment Develop a : 2. Have participants smell multiple shirts from multiple confederates They rate each on the Smell Scale Results Attractive? No Yes Smell Scale: Low High Pleasant Odor Attractiveness The Steps of Science Induction à Theory Deduction Theory à Hypothesis (i.e., testable expectations) Examination: Participants, materials, procedure Is the hypothesis correct? If yes, the theory has gained support and new hypotheses are made and tested 6

7 Good theories Comes from testing many, many hypotheses A good theory Cannot be falsified, no matter how many times it s been tested Can explain affect/ behavior/ cognitions across a wide range of individuals and situations Will reliably affect/behavior/cognitions, even in unexpected ways E.g., People with a good genes smell better than average even when they are sick or eating a terrible diet The Steps of Science Induction à Theory Deduction Theory à Hypothesis (i.e., testable expectations) Examination: Participants, materials, procedure Is the hypothesis correct? If yes, the theory has gained support and new hypotheses are made and tested If no, you need to start the whole process over again Types of Research Results Differences Differences between individuals, groups, or conditions E.g., Does caffeine affect performance on an exam? 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% Rated as Good/Excellent Sex Partners 38% 76% 47% E.g., Which console gamers are the best sex partners? Best illustrated with 30% 20% 10% 0% 11% Average Xbox Nintendo PC 7

8 Types of Research Results Interactions Effect of a combination of factors on a DV E.g., Does the combination of parental pressure and student age affect students school performance? 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% Student age 10 Student age 16 Best illustrated with a 10% 0% Low High Parental pressure Types of Research Results Relationships Relationships between two or more variables E.g., relationship between how fast someone is talking and how intelligence they sound Rate of speech Perceived intelligence E.g., relationship between how many colors are in a painting and how attractive it is? Best illustrated in Attractiveness # of colors Types of Research Results Types of Relationships one variable increases as the other increases E.g., Relationship between rate of speech and perceived intelligence of speaker Rate of speech Perceived intelligence 8

9 6/15/17 Types of Research Results Types of Relationships one variable decreases as other increases Crowd size E.g., Relationship between crowd size and helping Helping behavior Types of Research Results Types of Relationships one variable increases and then decreases as the other increases E.g., Relationship between number of colors in painting and its attractiveness Attractiveness # of colors Types of Research Results Types of Relationships one variable does not increase or decrease as the other increases E.g., Relationship between a stocks past growth and future growth 9

10 Types of Research Results Relationships are described by r (ranging from -1 to +1) E.g., Types of Research Methods Non-experiments Observing behavior as it occurs naturally observing one or more special cases Example: HM (Henry Molaison) Types of Research Methods Non-experiments observing people in their natural setting Example: American Society for Microbiology regularly measures whether people wash their hands in restrooms In surveys, 96% of adults say they always wash Experimenters hide in stalls marked Out of Order Found 93% of women and only 77% of men actually did In a similar studies conducted by London School of Hygiene, only 64% of women and 32% of men washed their hands in public bathrooms 10

11 6/15/17 Types of Methods Non-experiments I m great! having people tell us about their behavior, past experiences, views, opinions, etc E.g., research shows that students with? high self-esteem tend to get better grades What does this mean? Types of Methods Non-experiments I m great! Problem when any number of extraneous variables may be causing a relationship Many possible third variables Good parenting, better schools or neighborhoods, higher SES? Genes or personality factors related with both self-esteem and intelligence Etc Third-variable Problem Confusing correlation with causation Relationships can be spurious Relationship between variables is actually caused by effect of a third variable Many examples in media coverage of psychology More in the home help children go to college Living in increases likelihood of general anxiety Doing crossword or Sudoku puzzles helps prevent 11

12 Types of Research Methods Experiments Observing behavior in a controlled, laboratory environment All variables are held constant for all participants, except the IV So, any differences between conditions must be due to the IV Types of Research Methods Experiments Observed that black uniforms are associated with behavior All ten football/ hockey teams that wore black uniforms had extremely high penalty rates Found teams became more after being switched to black uniforms Does this mean black uniforms cause bad behavior? Types of Research Methods Experimental test Assigned participants to white or black team Then let them decide whether to play A non-violent game (putting contest) A violent game (dart gun duel) 12

13 Experiments Participants on the white team overwhelmingly picked the nonviolent game Those one the black team overwhelmingly picked the violent game Experiments (Participant Control) Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions Makes sure differences between conditions aren t caused by differences between participants E.g., men vs. women, extraverts vs. introverts, aggressive vs. passive, etc. All experimental groups are balanced Experiments (Participant Control) What if participants were left to decide whether to be on the black or white team? More aggressive people may have been drawn to pick the black team Men may have been drawn to pick the black team 13

14 Experiments (Participant Control) Larger samples ensure that all participant differences become equal across conditions Chances of all men being randomly assigned to black team 2 men, 2 women = 50% 10 men, 10 women= (50%) 10 = 0.1% 50 each = (50%) 50 = % Experiments What makes a study an experiment? (Participant Control) Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions All variables held constant for all participants, except for the IV Any difference between conditions must be due to the IV The one way to infer causation Experiments Disadvantages Sometimes experiments are impossible to do Some conditions cannot be randomly assigned E.g., Cannot do controlled experiment on effects of smoking on humans E.g., Cannot do a controlled experiment on the effects of adoption on children Some conditions cannot be experimentally E.g., Cannot do a controlled experiment on effects of gender 14

15 Validity Do the results of a study accurately reflect the truth? Validity do the results of a study reflect what would happen in the real world? Naturalistic observations, in which participants don t know they are being observed, have the highest external validity Validity Do the results of a study accurately reflect the truth? Validity are we sure we know what caused the results of the study (i.e., causation)? Experiments, with control and randomization, have the highest internal validity Validity validity requires controlling of the environment (i.e., lab setting), but this causes low external validity validity requires a natural environment, but this lack of control causes low internal validity 15

16 Good Research Combines multiple methods Non-experimental methods Naturalistic observations Surveys Case studies Experimental methods Experiments High External Validity High Internal Validity Goals of Science Description Prediction Making Observations & New Theories Causation Explanation Testing Hypotheses 16