INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY Toward an Integration

Transcription

1 SEVENTH EDITION INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY Toward an Integration WALTER MISCHEL Columbia University YUICHI SHODA University of Washington RONALD E. SMITH University of Washington WILEY JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

2 CONTENTS PREFACE AND TEXT ORGANIZATION Hi CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION TO PERSONALITY 1 What Is Personality Psychology? 1 Stable, Coherent Individual Differences 1 Describing, Predicting, Understanding 2 Defining Personality 3 Theory and Levels of Analysis in Personality Psychology 4 Early "Big Picture" Theory 4 From Grand Theories to Levels of Analysis 5 Levels of Analysis: Organization of This Book 6 In Focus 1.1 The Personal Side of the Science 7 The Trait-Dispositional Level 8 The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 8 The Phenomenological Level 9 The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 10 The Social Cognitive Level 11 The Biological Level 12 Levels of Analysis Applied to Understand Unexpected Aggression: The Texas Tower Killer 12 Integration of Levels: The Person as a Whole 15 Practical Applications: Coping and Personal Adaptation 16 Summary 17 Key Terms 18 CHAPTER 2 DATA, METHODS, AND TOOLS 19 Why a Science of Personality? Beyond Hindsight Understanding 19 In Focus 2.1 Gary W, the Text's Case- Gary's Self-Description 21 The Range of Personality-Relevant Measures 21 Interviews 22 Tests and Self-Reports 22 In Focus 2.2 Early Personality Measurement 23 Projective Measures 23 Naturalistic Observation and Behavior Sampling 23 Remote Behavior Sampling: Daily Life Experiences 26 Physiological Functioning and Brain Imaging 27 XI

3 xii > Contents Conceptual and Methodological Tools 29 Constructs and Operational Definitions 29 An Example: Defining the Construct of Aggression 30 Establishing Relationships Among Observations 31 Correlation: What Goes with What? 31 Interpreting Correlations 33, Reliability and Validity of Observations and Measures 34 Reliability: Are the Measurements Consistent? 34 Validity: What Is Being Measured? 34 Content Validity 34 Criterion Validity 35 Construct Validity: Elaborating the Meaning of the Construct 35 The Experimental Approach 36 Independent and Dependent Variables 36 Experimental and Control Groups 36 Double-Blind Designs 37 Ethics in Personality Research 37 Summary 39 Key Terms 40 PARTI THE TRAIT-DISPOSITIONAL LEVEL 41 PRELUDE TO PART I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 41 CHAPTER 3 TYPES AND TRAITS 43 Types and Traits 44 Types 44 Traits: Individual Differences on Dimensions 44 Traits Defined 44 In Focus 3.1 An Example: Type A Personality 45 Describing and Explaining 46 Trait Attributions 47 Gordon Allport 47 Raymond B. Cattell 49 Hans J. Eysenck 51 Common Features of Trait Theories 53 Inferring Traits from Behavioral Signs 53 Generality and Stability of Traits 54 Traits and States Distinguished 54 Search for Basic Traits 54 Quantification 55 Aggregating Across Situations to Increase Reliability 55

4 Contents A jdii Taxonomy of Human Attributes 56 Psycholexical Approach 56 The "Big Five" Trait Dimensions 56 Factor Analysis to Find Dimensions: The NEO-PI-R 57 Supportive Evidence for Five-Factor Model 60 Stability of Traits over Time 61 Links Between the Perceiver and Perceived: Valid Ratings 63 Personality Judgments to Predict Behavior 64 In Focus 3.2 Prototypes: "Typical" People 65 Interaction of Traits and Situations 66 Are Traits Explanations or Summaries? 66 Summary 67 Key Terms 68 CHAPTER 4 THE EXPRESSIONS OF DISPOSITIONS 69 Traits, Situations, and the Personality Paradox 70 Individual Differences in Behavior Tendencies 70 The Intuitive Assumption of Consistency 70 The 1968 Challenge 70 The Paradox Defined 71 Incorporating Situations Into Traits 71 In Focus 4.1 The Person versus Situation Debate 72 If... Then... Situation-Behavior Signatures 73 Evidence for Signatures Indicative of Personality Types 74 Gary W s Behavioral Signatures 75 Behavioral Signatures of Different Personality Types 75 The Narcissistic Signature 76 The Signature of Rejection Sensitivity 77 Two Types of Consistency 78 Uses of the Two Types of Consistency 78 Interactionism in Personality Psychology 80 The Meaning of Person X Situation Interaction 80 An Example: Uncertainty Orientation 80 Definition of Triple Typology 81 In Focus 4.2 A Triple Typology for Hostility 82 Interaction as a Rule in Science 83 Resolution of the Personality Paradox 83, Summary: Expressions of Consistency in Traits-Dispositions 84 Summary 86 Key Terms 86 Taking Stock Part I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 87 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 87 Enduring Contributions of the Trait-Dispositional Level 88

5 xiv Contents PART II THE PSYCHODYNAMIC-MOTTVATIONAL LEVEL 91 PRELUDE TO PART II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 91 CHAPTER 5 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES: FREUD'S CONCEPTIONS 93 Basic Assumptions: Unconscious Mental Determinism 95 The Unconscious 95 The Roads to the Unconscious 96 Dreams 96 Free Association 97 In Focus 5.1 Encouraging Free Association 97 Psychic Structure: Anatomy of the Mind 97 The Id: At the Core 98 The Pleasure Principle 98 ' Sexual and Aggressive Instincts 98 Primary Process Thinking 98 The Ego: Tester of Reality 99 The Reality Principle 99 The Superego: High Court in Pursuit of Perfection 99 Conflict, Anxiety, and Psychodynamics 100 Conflict 100 Defense: Denial and Repression 101 Libido 102 Neurosis 102 When Defenses Fail: Neurotic Anxiety and Conflict 102 Development of Neurotic Anxiety 102 The Meaning of Neurotic Acts 103 Origins of Neuroses 103 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: "Mistakes" That Betray 104 Motivational Determinism: Unconscious Causes 104 Personality Development 105 Stages of Development 106 Oral 106 Anal 106 Phallic 106 Latency 106 Genital 107 In Focus 5.2 How Oral Is the Infant? 107 Fixation and Regression 108 Freud's Theory of Identification 108 Impact of Freud's Theories 109 Image of the Person 109 The Healthy Personality 110 Behaviors as Symptoms 110 Summary 111 Key Terms 112

6 Contents ^ xv CHAPTER 6 POST-FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMICSAND MOTIVES 113 Toward Ego Psychology and the Self 114 Anna Freud and the Ego Defense Mechanisms 114 Transformation of Motives 115 Projection 116 Reaction Formation 116 Rationalization 117 Sublimation 117 Carl Jung 118 Alfred Adler 121 Erich Fromm 123 Erik Erikson 123 Object Relations Theory and the Self 125 "Good-Bad Splitting" 126 The Development of Self 127 Attachment: The Roots of Object Relations 127 Attachment Theory 128 Early Attachment Relations: Secure/Insecure Attachment Patterns 128 Attachment in Adult Relationships 129 Kohut's Theory 131 Murray, the Harvard Personologists, and Higher Motives 134 Higher Order Motives 134 Competence Motivation 135 Need for Achievement 136 In Focus 6.1 The Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) 136 Need for Power 137 Need for Intimacy 138 Implicit Methods for Assessing Motives 138 Summary 139 Key Terms 140 CHAPTER 7 PSYCHODYNAMIC PROCESSES 141 Anxiety and Unconscious Defenses 142 The Concept of Unconscious Repression 142 Repression versus Suppression 143 Studying Repression 143 Perceptual Defense 144 The Long History of Perceptual Defense 144 Limitations of Early Laboratory Studies 145 The Cognitive Unconscious 145 Experimental Evidence for Unconscious Processes 146 The Repressed Memory Debate 146 Return of the Repressed 147 Did It Really Happen? 147 The Power of Suggestion 147 The Risk of Excessive Skepticism 148 Optimistic Prospects for the Future of the Unconscious 148

7 xvi P- Contents Patterns of Defense: Individual Differences in Cognitive Avoidance 148 Repression-Sensitization 148 In Focus 7.1 Person-Situation Interaction in Repressive Tendencies 149 Selective Attention 150 Blunting versus Monitoring Styles 151 The Role of Control: When Don't You Want to Know? 152 Matching the Medical Information to the Patient's Style 153 Personality Assessment 154 The Core Beneath the Mask 154 ^ Reiving on the Clinician 154 Projective Methods 154 The Rorschach Test 155 Assessment with the TAT 156 In Focus 7.2 Gary's TAT Stories 156 Studying Lives in Depth 157 Assessment Strategy: Diagnostic Council 157 Selecting U.S. Spies: The OSS Assessment Project 158 From Situational Tests to Psychodynamic Inferences 158 Treatment and Change 159 Free Association and Dream Interpretation 159 In Focus 7.3 Today's View of Freud's Theory of Trauma 160 The Transference Relationship and Working Through 161 Relational Therapy and Restoration of the Self 162 Alternative Psychodynamic Interpretations of Gary W. 163 Summary 163 Key Terms 164 Taking Stock Part II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 165 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 165 Enduring Contributions of the Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 166 PART III THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL 169 PRELUDE TO PART III: The Phenomenological Level 169 CHAPTER 8 PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 171 Sources of Phenomenological Perspectives 173 Allport's Functional Autonomy 173 Lewin's Life Space 173 Phenomenology and Existentialism: The Here and Now 176 George Kelly's Psychology of Personal Constructs 177 The Person's Constructs 177 A Personal Construct Conceptualization of Gary W. 179 Rationality-Emotionality 179 Power and Control versus Dependence and Weakness 179 Defeat-Success 179 Security-Liberty 179

8 Behavioral Referents for Personal Constructs 180 Exploring the Meaning Underlying Puzzling Behavior Patterns 181 People as Scientists 182 Constructive Alternativism: Many Ways to See 183 Roles: Many Ways to Be 183 People Are What They Make of Themselves: Self-Determination 184 Carl Rogers'Self Theory 184 Unique Experience: The Subjective World 184 Self-Actualization 185 The Self 185 ^ In Focus 8.1 Self-Actualization as a Need (Maslow) 186 Consistency and Positive Regard 187 Client-Centered Therapy 189 Rogers Reflects on His Own Work 190 Common Themes and Issues 191 Potential for Growth and Change 191 Summary 192 Key Terms 193 Contents -4 xvii CHAPTER 9 THE INTERNAL VIEW 194 Exploring Internal Experience 194 Why Self Matters: Consequences of Self-Discrepancies 195 In Focus 9.1 Effects of Self-Discrepancy: Anorexia 198 The View Through the Persons Eyes 198 Uses of Self-Assessment 199 The Q-Sort Technique 200 Interviews 201 The Semantic Differential 201 Nonverbal Communication 202 Studying Lives from the Inside 203 The Whole Person: Psychobiography 203 Life Stories: Personal Narratives 203 Enhancing Self-Awareness: Accessing One's Experiences 204 Group Experiences 204 Meditation 206 The Persons Experience and the Unconscious 207 Accessing Painful Emotions: Hypnotic Probing 208 Peering into Consciousness: Brain Images of Subjective Experiences 209 The Value of Self-Disclosure about Subjective Experiences 209 In Focus 9.2 Caution: Rumination Can Increase Depression 210 Change and Well-Being 210 The Meaningful Life, the Healthy Personality 210 Summary 212 Key Terms 213 Taking Stock Part III: The Phenomenological Level 214 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 214 Enduring Contributions of the Phenomenological Level 215

9 xviii Contents PART IV THE BEHAVIORAL-CONDITIONING LEVEL 217 PRELUDE TO PART IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 217 CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTIONS 220 The Behavioral Approach to Psychodynamics: Dollard and Miller 221 Primary Needs and Learning 221 f Drive 222 Cue 223 Response 223 Reinforcement 223 Conflict 223 Neurotic Conflict: The Core 225 Anxiety and Repression 225 Psychodynamic Behavior Theory 225 Classical Conditioning: Learning Emotional Associations 226 How Classical Conditioning Works 226 Higher-Order Conditioning 227 In Focus 10.1 A Behavioral Challenge to the Psychodynamic Theory of Neurosis 230 From Trauma to Anxiety 231 Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning: Learning from Response Consequences 232 How Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Works 232 Summary of Two Types of Conditioning 233 B. F. Skinner's Influence on Personality 233 Importance of the Situation 234 Rejection of Inferred Motives 235 Identifying Stimuli (Situations) Controlling Behavior 236 Conditioned Generalized Reinforcers 238 Discrimination and Generalization in Everyday Life 238 Shaping Behavior by Successive Approximations 240 The Patterning of Outcomes: Schedules of Reinforcement 240 Superstitions: Getting Reinforced into Irrationality 241 Punishment 241 Summary 242 Key Terms 243 CHAPTER 11 ANALYZING AND MODIFYING BEHAVIOR 244 Characteristics of Behavioral Assessments 245 Case Example: Conditions "Controlling" Gary's Anxiety Direct Behavior Measurement 246 Situational Behavior Sampling 246 Verbal Behavior 248 Finding Effective Rewards

10 Contents "4 jdx Assessing Conditions Controlling Behavior 249 Functional Analyses: Case Example 250 Changing Emotional Reactions 252 Desensitization: Overcoming Anxiety 252 Conditioned Aversion: Making Stimuli Unattractive 255 An Example: Treating Cocaine Dependency 255 Changing Behavior 256 Case Example: Hyperactivity 256 In Focus 11.1 Rewards May Backfire 257 Contingency Contracting 258 v- Symptom Substitution? 258 Evaluating the Consequences of Behavior, Not the Person 259 Does Changing Behavior Change Personality? 260 Unexpected Similarities: Behavior Theory and Existentialism 261 In Focus 11.2 Depression: More than Insufficient Reinforcement 263 Summary 264 Key Terms 265 Taking Stock Part IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 266 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 266 Enduring Contributions of the Behavioral- Conditioning Level 266 PARTV THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEVEL 269 PRELUDE TO PART V: The Social Cognitive Level 269 CHAPTER 12 SOCIAL COGNITIVE CONCEPTIONS 271 Development of the Social Cognitive Perspective 271 Historical Roots 271 Cognitive Processes Underlying Behavior 272 Observational Learning (Modeling): Albert Bandura 273 Learning through Observation 273 Observing Other People s Outcomes: What Happens to Them Might Happen to You 275 Rules and Symbolic Processes 275 New Directions 276 Social Cognitive Person Variables 276 Encodings (Construals): How Do You See It? 277 Expectancies and Beliefs: What Will Happen? 278 In Focus 12.1 Self-Efficacy and Its Implications 279 The Role of Self-Efficacy 279 Affects: Feelings and "Hot" Reactions 280 Goals and Values: What Do You Want? What Is It Worth? 280 What Can You Do? Overcoming Stimulus Control 281 In Focus 12.2 On the History of Person Variables 282

11 xx! Contents The Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) 283 Structure and Dynamics 283 View of the Person: Gary W. 284 Assessing Person Variables and Dynamics 284 Gary's Ways of Encoding Experience and Himself 285 Affect and Distress Reactions 285 Gary's Rejection Sensitivity Dynamics (Interpersonal Domain) 285 Expectancies, Values, and Goals 286 Common Themes 287 Summary 289 Key Terms 290 CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES 291 The Self 292 The "I" and the "Me" 292 The Self as a Basic Schema 292 Self-Schemas 293 The Relational Self and Transference 293 The Relational Self 293 Transference Reconsidered 294 Perceived Stability of Self and Potential for Change 295 Multiple Self-Concepts: Possible Selves 296 Self-Esteem and Self-Evaluation 297 Costs of Self-Esteem Pursuit 299 Features and Functions of the Self: Overview 299 Causal Attributions, Helplessness, and Mastery 300 Causal Attributions Influence Emotions and Outcomes 300 Pride and Shame 300 Learned Helplessness and Apathy 300 In Focus 13.1 The Perception of Control and Meaningfulness 301 Pessimistic Explanatory Styles 303 Learned Optimism 303 In Focus 13.2 The Illusory Warm Glow of Optimism 304 Helpless versus Mastery-Oriented Children 305 Incremental versus Entity Theories: Your Own Personality Theory Matters 306 Personality Assessment 307 Measuring Self-Efficacy Expectancies 308 Individual Differences in If... then... Signatures 309 The Implicit Association Test (IAT) 310 Personality Change and Therapy 311 Social Cognitive Influences 312 Cognitive Behavior Therapy 313 Beck's Cognitive Therapy 314 Summary 315 Key Terms 316 Taking Stock Part V: The Social Cognitive Level 317 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 317 Enduring Contributions of the Social Cognitive Level 318

12 Contents 4 xxi PART VI THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL 321 PRELUDE TO PART VI: The Biological Level 321 CHAPTER 14 HEREDITY AND PERSONALITY 323 Genetic Bases of Personality 323 The Human Genome: The Genetic Heritage 323 The Twin Method 324 Results of Twin Studies 325 The Big Five 325 Temperaments 326 Attitudes and Beliefs 328 Aggressive and Altruistic Tendencies 328 Romantic Love 329 Twins Reared Apart 329 Beyond Self-Report Measures 330 In Focus 14.1 Understanding Heritability and the Heritability Index 331 Heredity versus Environment: Another False Dichotomy 332 Summary 333 Gene-Environment Interplay 333 The Unique (Nonshared) Psychological Environment of Each Family Member 334 Environmental Influences Within the Family 334 Environmental Influences Outside the Family 335 Interactions Among Nature-Nurture Influences 336 Genes Also Influence Environments 337 Search for Specific Gene-Behavior Connections 338 Causal Mechanisms: The Role of Neurotransmitter Systems 339 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Person X Situation Interactions 341 Social Environments Change the Expression of Genes, the Brain, and Personality 341 Stress is Bad for Your Brain 341 Summary 343 Key Terms 343 CHAPTER 15 EVOLUTION, BRAIN, AND PERSONALITY 344 Evolutionary Theory and Personality 344 The Evolutionary Approach 344 Implications of Evolution for Personality 346 Mate Selection 346 Sexual Jealousy 346 Explanations Are Not Justifications 347 Altruism 347 Evolutionary Theory and Inborn Constraints on Learning Biological Preparedness 348 Evolution of Fears

13 xxii S> Contents Specificity of Psychological Mechanisms 349 The Value of Discriminativeness in Coping with Stress 350 Brain-Personality Links 350 In Focus15.1 An Early Effort: Physique and Personality? 351 Biological Bases ofextraversion-introversion (H. J. Eysenck) 352 The Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Systems 354 Brain Asymmetry and Emotional Reactivity 354 Summary and Implications 355 Sensation Seeking: A Trait with a Specific Biological Basis? 356 In Focus 15.2 Testosterone and the Antisocial Personality 358 Biological Assessment and Change 359 New Windows on the Brain 359 Biological Therapies 361 Antidepressants 361 Antipsychotics 361 Tranquilizers 362 Other Common Drugs 362 Summary 363 Key Terms 364 Taking Stock Part VI: The Biological Level of Analysis 365 Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 365 Enduring Contributions of the Biological Level 365 PART VII INTEGRATION OF LEVELS: THE PERSON AS A WHOLE 367 PRELUDE TO PART VII: The Integration of Levels 367 Overview of Contributions from Each Level 367 CHAPTER 16 PERSONALITY IN THE PURSUIT OF GOALS 371 Approach-Avoidance Dispositions in Goal Pursuit 372 The Biological Level: BIS and BAS 372 The Trait-Dispositional Level 372 The Phenomenological Level: Positive-Negative Moods 373 The Social Cognitive Level: Promotion-Prevention Focus 375 In Focus 16.1 Studying Promotion versus Prevention Pride 376 Convergence with Evolutionary Theory 377 Linking Dispositions to Situations 378 Links to the Psychodynamic-Motivational and Behavioral Levels 378 The Goal Pursuit Process 380 Life Tasks, Personal Goals, and Projects 380 Illustrative Processing Dynamics: Thinking about a Career 381 Encoding/Appraisal of the Situation 383 Self-Relevance 383 Emotional Meanings 383 Biological and Trait-Dispositional Levels 384

14 Contents -4 xxiii Expectancies and Beliefs 384 Self-Efficacy Expectancies 384 Perceived Control and Predictability 385 Outcome Expectancies 385 Enhancing Self-Efficacy in Goal Pursuit 385 Affects/Emotions 386 "Hot" Emotions and Impulsive Reactions 386 Tuning in to the Wrong Thoughts: Anxiety 386 Goals/Values, Motivations 387 Goal Hierarchies 387 Standards and Self-Evaluation 387 Acquisition of Standards 388 Bypassing Self-Standards 388 Activation of Self-Standards: From Mindlessness to Self-Focus 388 Alternative Routes in Effective Goal Pursuit 389 Summary 390 Key Terms 391 CHAPTER 17 SELF-REGULATION: FROM GOAL PURSUIT TO GOAL ATTAINMENT 392 Self-Regulatory Processes 393 Why Self-Regulate? 393 Automaticity 393 Beyond AutomatidtyP 394 Approach (Appetitive) and Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 394 Willpower 394 Motivation and Competence 395 The Biological Level: Executive Functions 395 Brain Mechanisms in Effortful Control 395 Self-Report Measures 396 The Trait-Dispositional Level 396 Ego Control and Ego Resilience 396 The Social Cognitive and Phenomenological Levels 398 Cognitions, Emotions, and Attention in Self-Regulation 398 Emotional Regulation in Approach (Appetitive) Dilemmas 399 Delay of Gratification as a Basic Human Task 399 The Goal-Directed Delay Situation 400 Cooling Strategies: It's How You Think That Counts 401 Strategic Self-Distraction 401 Hot and Cool Construal 402 Flexible Attention 403 Emotional Regulation in Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 403 Cognitive Transformations to Deal with Stress 404 In Focus 17.1 Cooling Unwanted Emotions: Cognitive Reappraisal is Better Than Denying Negative Feelings 405 Interaction Among Levels: Hot and Cool Systems in Self-Regulation 405

15 xxiv Contents The Emotional (Hot) Brain/The Rational (Cool) Brain 406 Bodily Changes: Emotion in Stress 406 Fight or Flight Reactions 406 The Hot Amygdala 407 The Rational Cool Brain 408 Biosocial Model of Self-Regulation: Hot System/Cool System Interaction 408 Attention Control 408 In Focus 17.2 Neural Mechanisms in Impulsive Violence 409 Social Emotions Enable Self-Regulation: Links to Evolution 410 Self-Regulatory Competence 410 A Stable Person Variable 410 Long-Term Stability of Self-Regulatory Competence 410 Long- Term Protective Effects 411 The Down-Side of Self-Regulation 412 Conclusions 413 Potential for Self-Directed Change 413 In Focus 17.3 Gary W's Self-Regulatory System 414 Summary 415 Key Terms 416 CHAPTER 18 PERSONALITY IN ITS CONTEXT AND CULTURE 417 Personality System in Action 417 Personality Dispositions and Dynamics 418 Sources of System Activation 419 Expressions of the System and Their Consequences 419 Interacting Influences of Biology and Culture ~ 420 Interacting Influences on Personality Development 420 Biology-Trait-Socialization Interactions: Shyness 421 Gender and Sex Differences 422 Overview and Issues 422 Neonatal Sex Differences 422 Gender Concepts 423 Expression of Gender-Relevant Behavior 423 Interactions of Biology, Sex, and Culture in Response to Threat 423 In Focus 18.1 Adult Sex Differences and Their Implications 424 Men Fight or Flee: Women Tend and Befriend 425 Interactions in the Genesis of Gender Roles 426 Culture and Personality 427 The Link Between the Cultural and the Personal Meaning Systems 427 Culturally Specific Personality Dispositions 428 Cross-Cultural and Intracultural Differences 429 Individualism versus Collectivism 429 Summary: Interacting Influences of Biology Culture on Personality 429 What Develops? The Evolving Self 430 Taking Charge: Human Agency 430 The Self-Construction Process ^430

16 The Self as an Active Agent 431 Self-Direction/Agency 431 The Relational Self 431 What Do People Need to Thrive? The View from Multiple Levels 432 Potential for Change 434 The Role of Genetics 434 The Role of the Brain 434 Summary 435 Key Terms 436 Taking Stock Part VII: The Integration of Levels 437 Prospects for Personality Psychology 437 Personology Revisited 437 Contents *4 xxv Glossary 439 References 455 Photo Credits 489 Name Index 490 Subject Index 499