Introduction to Research. Ways of Knowing. Tenacity 8/31/10. Tenacity Intuition Authority. Reasoning (Rationalism) Observation (Empiricism) Science

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1 Introduction to Research Tenacity Intuition Authority Ways of Knowing Reasoning (Rationalism) Observation (Empiricism) Science Tenacity Most primitive approach Stubbornly hold on to an idea or tradition No evaluation One of the most common and dangerous ways of accepting new information 1

2 Intuition Believe it is true because I feel it is true Knowledge/belief from within Belief is unsupported by objective evidence Authority Minimally superior to the method of tenacity Accepting word of authority figure without skepticism Famous person Respected person Disadvantages of Method of Authority Authority could be wrong Nazi war atrocities Freud and cocaine 2

3 Disadvantages of Method of Authority Granting authority when it isn t justified Disadvantages of Method of Authority Granting authority when it isn t justified Celebrity endorsements Disadvantages of Method of Authority Granting authority when it isn t justified Celebrity endorsements Psychics 3

4 Advantages of Method of Authority True authorities are often correct Advantages of Method of Authority Obtain knowledge we don t have time or training to acquire Education Evaluate knowledge skeptically Reasoning Use individual powers of pure reason and logic Rationalism Beliefs are deducted from prior assumptions according to rules of logic Often takes the form of a syllogism 4

5 Logical Syllogism True Premises Premise:All humans are mortal; Premise: I am a human; Conclusion: Therefore, I must be mortal Pitfalls of Rationalism Incorrect premise leads to false conclusion Premise: No woman can count Premise: I am a woman Conclusion: Therefore, I cannot count Can construct logical, eloquent arguments for both sides of a debate Gun control Observation Learning through direct observation and experience Empiricism Can use other s observations if trustworthy Empirical evidence Often the cornerstone of solid argument 5

6 Pitfalls of Empiricism Experiences of the world are limited Difficult to be an objective observer Biases or preconceived ideas influence observation Reasoning strategies/errors Confirmation bias Confirmation Bias Search out information to confirm beliefs Ignore contradictory information If a man is offered a fact which goes against his instincts, he will scrutinize it closely, and unless the evidence is overwhelming, he will refuse to believe it. If, on the other hand, he is offered something which affords a reason for acting in accordance to his instincts, he will accept it even on the slightest evidence. - Bertrand Russell Empiricist Rationalist Empiricism: phenomena investigated by careful, objective observation Rationalism: phenomena understood by careful thought, and logical proof 6

7 Science Combination of observation and reasoning by logic Advantage Objectivity Observations can be verified/replicated by others Logical reasoning Used to explain observed events Scientific Method Building blocks Empirical observation Replication by other scientists Logical explanation Used for experimentation Generating hypotheses (educated guesses) Conducting tests Tests support or refute hypotheses Determinism Objectivity Data-driven Scientific Thinking Empirical Questions 7

8 Determinism All events have causes Understanding causes allows us to predict events Determinism and free will Illusion of free will? Or is free will meaningless without determinism? Objectivity Can be verified by more than one observer Define terms and research procedures Allows others to replicate study and observe same outcome Reliable replication Scientists trust the observation Failure to replicate Outcome not believed Data-driven Conclusions about human behavior Must be supported by objective information Objective information gathered through a systematic procedure Judge whether data given to support claim are adequate 8

9 Empirical Questions Can be answered through systematic observations and experiences Precise enough to allow specific predictions to be made Nonempirical Is there a God? Empirical Does belief in God increase with age? Categories of Empirical Research Descriptive Relational Explanatory Basic / Applied Field / Laboratory Descriptive Research Qualitative Research Carefully describe behavior Explanation of behavior is not a goal Necessary first step Establishes foundation for future study Observation Many great artists suffered from mental illness 9

10 Relational Research Two or more variables are measured and related to each other Causal-comparative, correlational Relationship Existence Pattern Strength Observation More highly creative individuals experience mental illness than noncreative individuals Explanatory Research Focuses on identifying the causes of behavior Manipulating conditions believed to be responsible for behavior Manipulation Artists receive no recognition for work Artists receive recognition for their work Basic vs. Applied Research Basic research Generates knowledge about phenomenon What are the effects of time pressure on inadvertent plagiarism? Applied Research Solves practical problems in the real world Builds on basic research Do multiple submission deadlines reduce plagiarism in student papers? 10

11 Field vs. Laboratory Research Laboratory research Occurs in the laboratory More control Greater ability to examine cause-effect relationships Field research Occurs in naturalistic settings Behavior more natural Greater ability to generalize to the real world Starting Your Own Research Generating a Research Question Intensive Case Studies Paradoxical Incidents Resolving Conflicting Results Serendipity Observations 11

12 Intensive Case Studies In-depth examination Individual or group of individuals Qualities Meticulous records Sharp discriminations Methods Archival material Record behavior Report what they/others have done Resolving Conflicting Results Competing theories Different explanations to support existing data Evidence in support of both theories Resolving conflict Identifying influential variables/situations Consolidation of theories Paradoxical Incidents Observations of behavior/phenomena Unexplained causes Example Kitty Genovese Led to research examining Bystander Effect 12

13 Serendipity Lucky Discoveries Occur when looking for something else Chance encounters Velcro Anomalous data Sensory store Chance Encounters Velcro George demestral Walk through field Cockleburs stuck to clothing Anomalous Data Sperling Harvard graduate student Research interest Information processing in visual system Amount of information obtained in single fixation 13

14 Anomalous Data Sperling Subjects reported they could see more than they could report Very short term memory store Trace faded before subjects finished reporting X B S T D H M G R L W C Report Identity and Location of every item in the display Stimulus presented for 50 msec (.50 sec) Observations One of the most common sources of research ideas Fundamental Principles of Science Determinism (Discussed previously) Empiricism/Operationalism Falsifiability Replicability Parsimony 14

15 Asking Empirical Questions What is an empirical question? Answered through systematic observations Precise Allow specific predictions Operationalize terms Defined in terms of a set of operations to be performed Strict definition Operationalizing Terms Strict definition Based on set of operations/procedures Works well for some sciences Physics, geology Causes problems for other sciences Psychology, Sociology Creates arbitrary limitations on concept Operational Definitions Links concepts to measurable, observable events Creativity # Ss drawing animals with the same features Rating scale # Features shared by earth animals 15

16 Pre-existing Bias Problem Intuitive theories Same terms used by laymen and scientists Technical concepts are different Leads to misunderstandings Depression Layperson Down in the dumps Psychologist DSM III-r definition Basing Views on Intuition Operational approach dehumanizes people Should base views of human beings on intuition Problems Disagreements difficult to resolve Disagreements result in a power struggle Operationalism: A Humanizing Force Truth of a knowledge claim not determined by strength of belief Theoretical views should be based upon observable behavior Knowledge claims become public Conflicting ideas can be tested Operational definitions evolve 16

17 Practice Problems 1. The ability to read the minds of others 2. How boring a lecture is 3. The sexiness of an actor or actress 4. Job satisfaction 5. Punishment Theories Theory Set of logically consistent statements about a behavioral phenomena Can be derived from observation Tentative first step Can be derived from experimental data Many experiments Theory explains the whole set of data Characteristics of Theories Summarize empirical knowledge about a phenomena Organizes the knowledge Provides a tentative explanation for phenomena Serves as a basis for making predictions about behavior 17

18 Falsifiability Theory must make falsifiable predictions Predictions must be specific Predict what should happen Predict what should not happen The Freedom to Make Mistakes Falsifiability allows mistakes Falsification of predictions is progress Used to adjust theories Theories accord more closely with data Better reflect the nature of the world Driving force in the evolution of a theory Replicability All experiments have flaws New data is replicated by others to verify results are reliable Replication occurs Greater confidence in results Replication fails Determine source of failure Conditions under which effect is seen Flaws that produced false result 18

19 Theories and Hypotheses Hypothesis Can be derived from theory Selects what the researcher observes Working hypothesis Falsifiable Corresponds with reality Coherent and parsimonious Correspondence with Reality Follows logically from what is known Consistent with respected scientific theories Consistent with available empirical data Coherence and Parsimony Coherence Hypothesis statement is logical Parsimony Hypotheses must be a simple as possible Occam s razor Cutting away superfluous concepts A prescription rather than a description 19

20 Practice Problems Dr. Sifonis pacing back and forth while lecturing End-of-the-semester stress affecting people differently Bothers some, others relatively unaffected Choosing to have multiple, visible tattoos The difficulty of carrying on a phone conversation when there is a time lag Variables Events or conditions Observed or measured Subject to change Three types Independent variables Dependent variables Extraneous variables Dependent Variables Effect or outcome of interest Manipulate presumed causes to determine their effect on the DV Measurement Operational definitions critical 20

21 Independent Variables Factor of interest to the experimenter Hypothesized cause of phenomena Variable being manipulated Independent Variables Characteristics Minimum of two levels Comparison between two situations The effects of different dosages of marijuana on reaction time IV = amount of marijuana Level 1 = High dose Level 2 = Low dose DV = reaction time Context and Variables Variable can be an IV or a DV Depends on presumed direction of causality Mental illness and Creativity Mental illness enables creativity IV = degree of mental illness DV = degree of creativity Creativity causes mental illness IV = degree of creativity DV = degree of mental illness 21

22 Extraneous Variables Variable that might affect DV Not of current interest to experimenter Has the potential to influence the results of the study Experimenter needs to control variable Extraneous Variable - Example Examine relationship between time spent reading the textbook and grade received in class IV = Time spent reading DV = Grade received in class Extraneous variable = Reading ability Mediating and Moderating Variables Mediating variable An intermediate variable that enables relationship between IV and DV Moderating variable Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV Education Mediating variable Social Class Self Breast Exam 22

23 Mediating and Moderating Variables Mediating variable An intermediate variable that enables relationship between IV and DV Moderating variable Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV Education Mediating variable Social Class Self Breast Exam Mediating and Moderating Variables Mediating variable An intermediate variable that enables relationship between IV and DV Moderating variable Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV Age Younger Moderating variable Social Class Self Breast Exam Mediating and Moderating Variables Mediating variable An intermediate variable that enables relationship between IV and DV Moderating variable Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV Age Older Moderating variable Social Class Self Breast Exam 23