Qualitative research An introduction International module University College Lillebaelt 1 Characteristics The source of well-grounded theory, illustrated with rich description and explanations of processes which occur in an identifiable, local context Reality is explored from an emic perspective, understanding life from the perspective of the participant in the setting under study Every day life is explored in an uncontrollable naturalistic environment The context in which the phenomenon occurs is considered to be part of the phenomenon itself 5 Characteristics Characteristics Data largely consist of transcriptions of interviews, observations of settings and the actors Hypotheses and theories emerges from the data set while the data collection is in progress and after data analysis has commenced The researcher examines the data for descriptions, patterns, and hypothesized relationship between phenomena The researcher then returns to the setting to collect data to test the hypotheses Morse & Field 1996 6 Qualitative research is a process that builds theory inductively over a period of time, step by step The theory fits the research setting and is relevant for that point in time only. Morse & Field 1996 7 History Qualitative methods In anthropology the concept of culture underlies the methods of ethnography Phenomenology has developed from philosophy Grounded theory has developed from sociology 10 Phenomenology describe the essence of experience Grounded theory describe a process Ethnography describe the phenomena within a cultural context Each of the qualitative methods answers different questions; the methods are distinct and the results provide a different perspective of the phenomenon 11 1
Phenomenology Paradigm: Philosophy Purpose: Seeks to understand the lived experience of individuals and their intention within their life-world Goal: To describe accurately the experience of the phenomenon under study Research question: What is it like to have a certain experience? Method: In-depth conversations in which the researcher and the participant are co-participants Other data sources: Literature, poetry and art Analysis: Searching for themes, patterns or trends. These are put together to describe the essence Number of participants: App. 6 Type of result: In-depth reflective description of experience Generalization is based on similar meanings, validity rests in the richness of the discussion 12 Ethnography Paradigm: Anthropology (culture) Purpose: Developing concepts and understand human behaviours from the insider s point of view; gaining access to the health beliefs and practices of a culture; view the phenomenon in the context in which it occurs facilitating understanding of health and illness behaviour Research question: In what ways do members of a community actively construct their world? or What is it like for a person to Method: Unstructured interviews, participant observation, fieldnotes Other data sources: Documents, records, photography, maps, social networks Analysis: Starts during interviews and observations; categories, concepts, themes, patterns are constantly compared, reviewed and explored further Number of participants: App. 30-50. Type of result: Explain aspects of social patterns or observed conduct in a group, revealing culturally embedded norms 13 Grounded theory Paradigm: Sociology (symbolic interactionisme: human behaviour is developed through interaction with each other) Purpose: Generation of explanatory theories of human behaviour Research question: Process questions, experience over time Method: Tape recorded unstructured interviews, observation and fieldwork techniques Other data sources: Participant observation, memoing, diary Number of participants: Participants are selected based on their knowledge of the topic and on the needs of the developing theory, a process called theoretical; app. 30-50. Analysis: Data collection, sampling and analysis all occur simultaneously as the study progresses, sampling and further data collection are based on the emerging theory; analysis is based on constant comparison, processoriented, and allows for change over time describing stages and phases inherent in a particular experience. Type of results: Description of the social, psychological process in the experience of 14 Research process What research question Why - purpose Where setting/context Who sample/sampling How - design 15 Qualitative data Qualitative data - Methods Narrative i.e. always non-numeric The participants life world and their relation to this The participants description and experience of phenomena 16 Participant observation Focus group interview The individual research interview 17 2
Data collection Participating observation Participant observation Participating observation is a method where the researcher participate actively in the environment s/he is observing 18 Complete observer Observer as participant Participant as observer Complete participant 19 Kristiansen & Krogstrup 1999 passive active Data collection Focus group interviews Focus group interview Focus group interview can be described as a research method where data is produces via group interaction about an issue which the research has decided 20 Participants 21 Halkier 2003 Social interaction Moderator The issue Friis 2009 Data collection 7 stages of an interview investigation The qualitative research interview The qualitative research interview attempts to understand the world from the subject s point of view, to unfold the meaning of their experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations Kvale & Brinkmann 2009 22 1. Thematizing Clarifying the purpose of the study Obtaining preknowledge of the subject matter to be investigated Becoming familiar with different techniques of interviewing and analyzing, and deciding which to apply in order to obtain the intended knowledge 2. Designing Structured vs. unstructured interview How many interview subjects do I need? Where, when and how? Go through all 7 stages before interviewing 23 3
The qualitative research interview The 7 stages Continuum of interview structure Structured Standarized questionnaire Semi-Structured Use of interview guide Informal conversation Association lead 24 3. Interviewing Preparing the interview guide the good interview question Research question vs. Interview question Types of interview questions Introductory questions Follow-up questions Probing questions Specifying questions Direct questions Indirect questions Structuring questions Silence Interpreting questions 25 The good interview question The 7 stages Thematically producing knowledge Spontaneous descriptions Coherent narratives Conceptual analysis Dynamically interpersonal relationship Keep flow Easy to understand Personal the subject s experiences Promote positive interaction 26 4. Transcribing 5. Analyzing 6. Verifying 7. Reporting 27 Qualitative analysis Qualitative analysis Organizing and interpreting non-numerical data with the purpose of uncover essential underlying dimensions and patterns of and in relations. The researcher's task is to create an analytical understanding of the empirical reality. 28 Analysis of qualitative data relies both on rigour and imagination It is impossible to reduce the task of analyse to a set of tools/procedures Good analysis draws widely on more general social science knowledge and locates the particular findings of one study within a broader context The task of analysis is dual and inherently contradictory: Telling the story from the point of view of the researched participant and unpacking that story in such a way that the broader meanings can be elicited 29 Green & Thorogood 2009 4
Qualitative analysis Analysis and interpretation Observations/conversations Reflexions & analysis Memoing & reflexions Reading literature 32 Meaning coding Meaning condensation Meaning interpretation Kvale & Brinkmann 2009 33 Analysis and interpretation 1. Comprehending making sense of data 2. Synthesizing decontextualizing 3. Theorizing 4. Recontextualizing Morse & Field 1996 34 35 36 Evaluating qualitative research Credibility/Internal validity/authenticity Dependability/Reliabilitet/Auditability Confirmability/Objectivity Transferability/External validity/fittingness Miles & Huberman 1994 37 Sandelowski & Barroso 2007 5
Trustworthiness of qualitative research Credibility Confidence in the truth of the data and interpretation of them Dependability The stability of data over time and conditions Confirmability The objectivity or neutrality of data, the trustworthiness of the data and their meanings Transferability The extent to which the findings can be transferred to other groups or settings, thick description Polit & Beck 2004 38 6