Chapter 5 Study Guide Practice Exam Questions: Which of the following is not included in the definition of learning? It is demonstrated immediately Assuming you have eaten sour pickles before, imagine eating a large juicy sour pickle. If thinking about it causes your mouth to water, then your salivation would be referred to as a/an: Conditioned response In what way does an unconditioned response differ from a conditioned response? The UCR is generally more intense. In Pavlovian conditioning, learning occurs more readily when the CS: precedes the UCS by.5 seconds How can the ease with which some individuals acquire some phobias (in some cases people acquire phobias with a single exposure, while others never acquire a phobia after 100 pairings) be explained? The conditioning stimuli are more intense in some pairings. Extinction of the CR in Pavlovian conditioning occurs when the: CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS A dog taught to salivate when shown a circle also salivates when shown a square. This behavior is referred to as: generalization A child is knocked down by a large friendly dog and is frightened. Later he sees his grandmother's dog and is frightened. The fear has been: generalized Your son never throws temper tantrums when he is with you, yet he very easily resorts to one when your spouse is in charge. This is an example of: stimulus discrimination Reinforcers increase the probability that behavior will be: repeated A reinforcer is: anything, so long as it increases the possibility that the response preceding it will be repeated. Negative reinforcers are defined as stimuli that: increase the frequency of a response when they are removed. Which type of conditioning is being used if a rat presses a bar in order to turn off an electrical shock? Escape Which of the following is a primary reinforcer? A soft drink A slot machine or "one-armed bandit" increases gambling behavior by: partial reinforcement
Behaviors that are required through partial instead of continuous schedules of reinforcement are: slower to be established but more resistant to extiction If a worker gets paid every Friday for completing her 40-hour work week, she is being paid on a schedule: fixed-interval When speaking of schedules of reinforcement, interval schedules always relate to: elapsed time between reinforcements Universal Studios wants to train a cat to pull a rope. The likelihood of the cat engaging in this behavior as a normal part of its behavior is very low. Which of the techniques for obtaining the initial response would be the best choice?: Shaping Amy is learning to do a back walkover in gym class. Which of the following techniques would be the best technique to use to encourage the desired initial response? Modeling One basic difference between Pavlovian conditioning and operant conditioning is that: in Pavlovian two stimuli are associated, and in operant a response and a stimulis are associated. (A) Potential undesirable side effect(s) of punishment is/are: fear, hostility, hatred, counter aggression against the punisher, anxiety that may interfere with performance. Why is sending a note home to a parent not the most effective method of suppressing undesirable behavior? The association between the response and the punishment needs to be immediate Being able to familiarize oneself with the streets of a town, and then one day being able to go to a certain place (hospital, police station) easily, although that route had never been taken before, is an example of what type of learning?: Latent learning What type of learning is not mechanically acquired through reinforcement and in which overt responses may not be a result? Observational learning Defining Learning Learning: Relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience. Associative learning: Learning by making an association between two stimulus events (Pavlovian conditioning), or by learning an association between a response and its consequence. Pavlovian conditioning: Learning that takes place when a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that already produces a response (UCR). What happens after conditioning? The organism responds to the neutral stimulus (CS) in some way.
What is the response to the CS called? A conditioned response (CR). Operant conditioning: Learning an association between one's behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment) Template learning: Learning that depends on a particular type of perceptual experience during a critical time in development. What is an example of template learning? Imprinting and language learning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): In Pavlovian conditioning, a stimulus that elicits and unlearned response or reflex. Unconditioned response (UCR): In Pavlovian conditioning, an unlearned response or reflex caused by an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR): In Pavlovian conditioning, a learned response to a conditioned stimulus. Acquisition of Pavlovian Conditioning Acquisition: In Pavlovian conditioning, the process of learning to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. What is an acquisition in operant conditioning? The process of learning to associate responses with a reinforcer or punisher. When does conditioning take place more easily? When the neutral or conditioned stimulus is clearly different from other stimuli. What does the intensity of the UCS influence? Conditioning as will the frequency with which the CS and UCS are paired Stimulus Contingency and Conditioning What did Rescorla's experiment expose? When did this occur? Exposed rats to one of two conditioning procedures: either stimulus contingent procedure or a noncontingent procedure; 1968 Stimulus contingent procedure: A series of CSs and UCSs (tones and shocks) were presented, but a UCS (shock) never occured unless a CS (tone) preceded it- the presentation of the UCS was contingent upon a CS preceding it. Non-contingent procedure: The same number of CS and UCS presentations occurred: however, the presentations of the CS and UCS were independent- the presentation of the UCS was not contingent upon a CS preceding it. CS-UCS Timing and Conditioning Delayed conditioning:
In Pavlovian conditioning, learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus is presented and continues until the organism begins responding to the unconditioned stimulus. Simultaneous conditioning: In Pavlovian conditioning, learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus. Trace conditioning: In Pavlovian conditioning, learning that takes place when presentation of the conditioned stimulus begins and ends before the unconditioned stimulus is presented. Backward conditioning: In Pavlovian conditioning, presenting the unconditioned stimulus prior to the conditioned and resulting in little or no conditioning Conditioned Taste Aversions Who was the first to study conditioned taste aversions? John Garcia What is conditioned taste aversions also knows as? The Garcia effect Conditioned Taste Aversion: A learned aversion to a relatively novel taste or smell that occurs following illness or nausea What individuals commonly experience conditioned taste aversion? Individuals who have undergone chemo or radiation therapy for cancer Extinction and Reinstatement Extinction: In Pavlovian conditioning, the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus What is the process of eliminating a response by discontinuing reinforcement for it in operant conditioning? Extinction Reinstatement: In Pavlovian conditioning, the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Generalization: Process by which and organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, without undergoing conditioning for each similar stimulus. Discrimination: In classical and operant conditioning, the process by which responses are restricted to specific stimuli. In psychology, the behavioral consequence of prejudice in which one group is treated differently from another group:
Social Second-Order Conditioning Second-order conditioning: A learned association between two conditioned stimuli (CS1-CS2) that can occur following conditioning to CS1 and an unconditioned stimulus (US) Operant Conditioning When does operant conditioning take place? When behavior is influenced by its consequences What did Thorndike analyze? What did he believe? He analyzed the effects of stimuli on voluntary, operant behavior; He believed animals learn to make voluntary responses that help them adapt to their environment. Law of effect: The foundation of the operant conditioning theory; behavior followed by reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened. Who proposed the law of effect theory? Edward Thorndike Measuring Operant Behavior Cumulative record: A chart of operant responses over time Where are time increments indicated? Along the horizontal axis Where are operant responses indicated? Along the vertical axis As response rate increases, the slope of the increases: Record Discriminative stimulus: In operant conditioning, a stimulus that controls a response by signaling the availability of reinforcement Reinforcement Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, any procedure where an effect following a specific response increases the probability that the response will occur. Positive reinforcement: In operant conditioning, any stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of the response
Negative reinforcement: In operant conditioning, any stimulus that increases the probability of a response through its removal Escape and Avoidance Procedures Escape conditioning: In operant conditioning, learning that takes place when an organism performs a response that will terminate an aversive stimulus Avoidance conditioning: In operant conditioning, the learning of a response to an discriminative stimulus that allows an organism to avoid exposure to an aversive stimulus Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers Primary reinforcer: In operant conditioning, a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive such as hunger, thirst, or sleep. Conditioned reinforcer: A stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcers What are three examples of conditioned reinforcers? 1. Words of praise, 2. Good grades, 3. Money Continuous Versus Partial Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement schedule: In operant conditioning, the presentation of a reinforcer for each occurrence of a specific behavioral Partial reinforcement schedule: In operant conditioning, a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time, for example, a ration or interval schedule. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Partial reinforcement effect: Behaviors that are acquired on partial, instead of continuous, reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are more persistent when no reinforcement is provided. Interval schedule: An interval schedule is time-based: subjects are reinforced for their first response after a certain amount of time has passed. Variable schedule reinforcement: Delivered unpredictably Fixed schedule reinforcement: Always delivered after a constant number of responses or a fixed interval of time. Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning wherein reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
Give two examples of a fixed ratio: 1. A rat receives a good pellet after twelve bar presses, 2. You receive $10.00 for every 500 envelopes you stuff. Variable ratio (VR) schedule: Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning wherein reinforcement is provided after an average of a specific number of responses occurrence Give two examples of variable ratio: 1. Slot machines, 2. Fishing Fixed interval (FI) schedule: Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning wherein reinforcement is provided for the first response after a specified period of time has elapsed. (Ex. Checking to see if the Jell-O has set or if the cookies are ready) Variable ratio (VI) schedule: Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals (Ex. Repeatedly check your e-mail rewarded when you actually receive an e- mail) Shaping Shaping: In operant conditioning, a technique in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs Modeling Modeling: Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior What is modeling also known as? Observational learning Punishment and Operant Behavior Punishment: A procedure in which the presentation of a stimulus following a response leads to a decrease in the strength or frequency of the response; Can involve withdrawal of pleasurable activities, but not always associated with physical punishment such as spanking Limitations of Punishment What are the emotional side effects of punishment? Fear and aggression of parent May generalize over time Learns how to avoid punishment, not right from wrong May model aggressive behaviors of parent
What are a few of the limitations of punishment? Punishment suppresses behavior, but does not eliminate it. Suppressed behavior ay reemerge when the prospect of punishment is gone or sharply curtailed Advantages of Punishment Why is it essential to suppress undesirable actions? So that a desirable alternative behavior may occur Why is punishment desirable? Because reinforcement of an alternative behavior is impractical When does punishment work best? When it is immediate, consistent, and strong enough to accomplish the desired goal of suppressing undesirable behavior (Ex. Time-outs about 5-10 minutes- not hours) Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning Two-Factor theory of learning: A theory of avoidance learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning Cognitive Influences on Learning Cognitive learning theory: Theoretical perspective that attempts to study the role of thinking and memory processes in learning Latent learning: Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior (Ex. Mazes, directions, learning new material) Cognitive map: Internal representations of the relationship between events or spatial elements Observational Learning Observational learning theory: Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior What is the observational learning theory also known as? modeling Social learning theory: Theory that emphasizes the role of observation in learning What was the Bandura and BoBo doll experiment? Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to act aggressively when placed in the same situation. What four key concepts did Bandura indentify in observational learning? Our attention is drawn to a modeled behavior We store a mental representation of behavior in our memories
A specific type of situation triggers us to convert the remembered observation into actions If our actions are reinforced, we add this behavior to our repertoire of responses. Biologic Bases of Learning Synaptic facilitation: An increase in size of the postsynaptic potential to a weak stimulus resulting from neuronal changes that underlie learning and memory Long-term potentiation (LTP): An increase in a neuron's sensitivity to fire following a burst of signals to that neurons dendrites