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Learning A relatively permanent change in Behavior Knowledge Capability Attitude Acquired through experience Cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation Infants do not learn how to walk, as basic motor skills and maturation govern every species
Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. Stimulus Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds Reflex An involuntary response to a stimulus Eye blink to a puff of air Conditioned reflex A response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus with out prior learning Salivate at the sight of food
Classical Conditioning Discovered by accident during saliva experiment Observed salivary response occurring before presentation of food when dogs: Heard footsteps of lab assistants Heard food dishes rattle Saw the attendant who fed them Spotted their food
Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without learning Food Loud noise Light in eye Puff of air in eye Unconditioned response (UCR) Response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning Salivation Startle Contraction of pupil to light Eye blink response
Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR Conditioned response (CR) Learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS Higher-order conditioning Occurs when the CS are linked together to form a series of signals Steps leading to a blood draw at a clinic
Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response
Changing Conditioned Responses Extinction Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS with out the UCS Spontaneous recovery Reappearance of an extinguished response after exposure to the original CS following a rest period Generalization Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS Discrimination Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli
Classical Conditioning in Daily Life Dental visits Sound of the drills and suction Smell of the office Sight of the chair and light Drug use The CS associated with drug use lead individuals to seek out those substances Counselors urge recovering addicts to avoid any cues (people, places, and things) Taste aversion Intense dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort
John Watson and Emotional Conditioning Initiated experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned in 1919 Little Albert Conditioned to be afraid of white rats and other white objects
Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: Increase or decrease the frequency of a response Shape an entirely new response Operant Voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence Reinforcer Anything that: Follows a response and strengthens it Increases the probability that it will occur B. F. Skinner
Variations in Operant Conditioning Skinner box A sound-proof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject Food pellets or water are delivered after correct response(s) Records are kept on a cumulative recorder
Process of Operant Conditioning Generalization The tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced A pigeon trained to peck a yellow disk will peck similarly-colored disks The less similar the color the lower the rate of pecking will be Discriminative stimulus A stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished Children misbehave with a grandparent because the discriminative stimuli (parents) are not present
Shaping Shaping Behavior Consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response Gradually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal Learning a piano concerto is done by teacher praising your ability to Read musical notes Play individual notes Play the notes continuously Play one hand of notes according to the music Play both hands according to the music Play the concerto slowly Play the concerto up to tempo Play the concerto correctly
Process of Operant Conditioning Successive Approximations A series of gradual steps, each more similar to the final desired response than the one before Reward disruptive children for very short periods of good behavior, then expecting them to gradually work for longer and longer periods Extinction The weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of withheld reinforcement Shaking a vending machine that fails to deliver soda or candy before giving up and walking away
Reinforcement Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated The series of behaviors involved in using an ATM Paying bills on time avoids steep latepayment fees
Reinforcement Positive reinforcement Any pleasant or desirable consequence that: Follows a response Increases the probability that the response will be repeated Roughly the same as a reward You smile as you walk down the street People smile back at you and say nice things You want to smile at everyone
Reinforcement Negative reinforcement Termination of an unpleasant condition after a response Increases the probability that the response will be repeated Turning on air conditioning to avoid the heat Getting out of bed to turn off a leaky faucet Heroin addicts will do almost anything to get another fix and avoid the pains of withdrawal
Negative Reinforcement Studying with classmates reduces the nervousness felt about an upcoming exam. Responding to test anxiety by joining a study group, studying more, and discussing the exam with other students helps alleviate text anxiety. Thus, test anxiety is an important negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning Food Water Sleep Secondary Reinforcer Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers Money Praise Applause
Punishment The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response
Punishment The difference between punishment and negative reinforcement: Punishment Adds an unpleasant condition A teen is grounded for not cleaning their room. Negative reinforcement An unpleasant condition is terminated or avoided The probability of a desired response is increased by removing an unpleasant stimulus when the correct response is made The teen is grounded until the room is clean.
Punishment Potential Problems Punishment does not extinguish an undesirable behavior Suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent is present The behavior is likely to continue when the threat of punishment is removed or in settings where punishment is not likely Repeat offenders in the criminal justice system Punishment indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behavior Punishment should be used in conjunction with reinforcement or rewards for appropriate behavior Punish a child for hitting with time-out then reward them later when they are playing appropriately
Potential Problems Punishment The person who is severely punished often becomes fearful and feels angry and hostile toward the punisher. May be accompanied by a desire to retaliate, avoid, or escape from the punisher or punishing situation Teens run away from home Loss of privilege is more effective than physical punishment and engenders less fear and hostility Punishment frequently leads to aggression. May model aggressive behavior Demonstrates aggression as a means for solving problems and discharging anger Children of abusive, punishing parents are at greater risk than other children of becoming aggressive and abusive themselves
Making Punishment Effective Punishment is necessary to stop destructive behavior. Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment: its timing, intensity, and the consistency of application It is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible Interrupting the misbehavior diminishes its rewarding aspects. The longer the delay between the response and the punishment, the less effective the punishment is in suppressing the response. Don t kick the dog today for what it did yesterday it won t connect the punishment with the misdeed. If delay is necessary, the punishment should remind them of the incident and explain why it was inappropriate.
Making Punishment Effective Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior. Unnecessarily severe punishment leads to adverse side effects. Purpose of punishment is NOT to vent anger but to modify behavior. Punishment meted out in anger is usually more intense than needed to bring about desired result. If too mild, it will have no effect. Gradually increasing the intensity of the punishment causes the perpetrator to adapt and the unwanted behavior will persist. To suppress a behavior, the punishment must be more punishing than the misbehavior is rewarding. A $200 ticket is more likely to suppress speeding than a $2 ticket.
Making Punishment Effective It must be applied consistently. Parents can not ignore misbehavior one day and punish the same act the next day. Both parents should react to the same misbehavior in the same way. An undesired response will be suppressed more effectively when the probability of punishment is high. Most people will not speed when a police car is in the rear-view mirror.
Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior modification A method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.
Applications of Operant Token economy Conditioning A program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges Poker chips or coupons are given when a patient grooms correctly, does chores, or interacts in a socially appropriate way Positive behavior may stop when tokens are not given
Observational Learning Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior Often involves imitation Modeling Another name for observational learning Improved learning when: Model Several sessions of observation precede attempts to perform the behavior Repeated in the early stages of practicing the behavior A person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated
Observational Learning Bandura and observed violence Bandura demonstrated how children are influenced by aggressive models. Bobo Doll and later studies confirmed that exposure to humans portraying aggression on film was the most influential in eliciting and shaping aggressive behavior. Violent video games increase aggressive behavior. Violence in music, music videos, advertising, and on the Internet also influences behavior. Observing consequences for aggressive acts helps preschoolers learn that violence is morally unacceptable. School-age children judge the rightness or wrongness of violence based on provocation: Retaliation believed morally acceptable even if punished by authority figures Individuals who watch the most violence as children were more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults. Children will also imitate prosocial or helping behavior Mister Rogers Neighborhood and Sesame Street