ADVANCED PSYCHOLOGY DIPLOMA COURSE ASSIGNMENT FOUR PERSON-CENTRED APPROACHES The aims of this unit are to enable you to: describe Freud s approach to personality structure and dynamics (id, ego, superego, and defence mechanisms). consider unconscious mental processes (instincts and motivations) comment on Freud s use of case studies to highlight concepts and the limitations of the Freudian approach be aware of post-freudian theories including those of Erikson focus on the person-centred (humanistic) approach of Rogers and Maslow and their rejection of the traditional scientific experimental approach account for the importance in humanistic psychology of o valuing individual experience o promoting personal growth o the concepts of free will and holism see the limitations of the humanistic approach TUTOR TALK: Context Person-centred approaches fall into two categories psychoanalytic (i.e. the Freudian School) and humanistic (the work of Rogers and Maslow). In the last unit, we will look at scientific methods and debates within psychology. The Psychoanalytic Approach This was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). He was initially a physician and researcher who studied physiology and medicine. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 1
He set up a practice to help people with neurological problems, but as he dealt with neurotic people, he became increasingly interested in the mental, rather than the physiological aspects of neurosis. He developed a theory that the human mind was comprised of three major systems, namely: 1. The id this is the unconscious mind, and contains the two great instincts which give people their drive and energy i.e. sex and aggression. 2. The superego which is partly conscious, but mainly unconscious, This is our conscience and it acts as a restraining influence on the sexual and aggressive drives of the id, so preventing us from doing things which we know to be morally wrong. 3. The ego this is our conscious mind that deals with the reality of everyday life. Whereas the id gives us our drives and desires, and the superego prevents us from satisfying these drives in socially unacceptable ways, the ego enables us to think and solve problems and so satisfy the needs of both the id and the superego, If you like, the ego is a calculator which allows the conflicting energies of the id and superego to be released effectively, e.g. our sex drive may give us the desire to make love with someone we hardly know or even a complete stranger; this drive of course comes from the id, however our superego tells us that it is socially unacceptable to approach people with direct and explicit sexual demands (if we do, we may well land up in prison!); this conflict is resolved however, by the ego which develops patterns of courtship and seduction which are acceptable. Similarly, with our aggressive feelings, if we feel angry with the way in which someone is treating us, the impulses from the id may tempt us to physically attack that person; however, this drive is restrained by our superego which tells us that such a course of action would be socially unacceptable (we might land up in prison again, this time for GBH) and our anxiety about social disapproval inhibits our aggression; it is again the ego which can enable us to resolve the conflict by working out a strategy to let that person know, in a socially acceptable way, how their behaviour is affecting us, so that they may change it, and the problem be resolved. Using this basic model of the mind, Freud formed theories about the development of personality, and about the causes of neuroses. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 2
Freud s Theory of Psychosexual Development Freud referred to this as his theory of Psychosexual Development. Remember that Freud thought that personality was dominated by the id particularly in infants. As a basic constituent of the id is the sexual drive, then an infant must express sexuality in order to release the tension from the id. Freud believed that the child passes through five stages of psychosexual development and, at each stage, experiences sexual satisfaction in different parts of the body called erogenous zones: 1. The Oral Stage (0-15 months) sexual feeling is located in the mouth and upper digestive tract, and the baby derives pleasure from sucking and feeding. If a child is deprived of, or over-indulged with, oral gratification then it may become fixated at this stage, Fixation means that the child never passes properly through the stage, and retains into later life the personality traits associated with it, e.g. over-eating and drinking, smoking, chewing gum, even talking too much! However, if oral needs are neither frustrated nor over-indulged, then the child passes on to 2. The Anal Stage. During its second year the child experiences sexual gratification at the other end of the digestive tract. If toilet training is too strict and the child becomes fixated at this stage, they may grow up to be mean, excessively clean and tidy, compulsive and fastidious. If toilet training is too lax, then they may grow-up to be messy, dirty, wasteful, and extravagant. If anal needs are neither frustrated nor over-indulged, however, the child passes on to 3. The Phallic Stage. About four years of age, sexual sensitivity switches to the genital area, Freud says that children have incestuous longings for their parents during this stage. Boys feel sexual impulses towards their mother, and become jealous of their rival the father (this is known as the Oedipus Complex). However, the boy is also afraid that the father will punish him for his incestuous desire (by castrating him). This causes castration anxiety, which eventually forces the boy to repress both his desire for his mother, and his hostility towards his father; (Repression means to remove conflicts from the conscious to the unconscious mind). When repression is complete, the Oedipus Complex finally disappears, and the boy identifies with his father, and begins to copy his mannerisms and behaviour. He thus adopts the masculine sex role, and also adopts his father s attitudes and moral standards, and so begins his superego development. By identifying with his father, the boy both reduces the risk that the father will harm him, and also gains indirect (vicarious) access to the mother. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 3
With girls, the position is less clear, but they are also supposed to develop conflicting emotions towards their parents (Electra Complex) which have to be repressed. Fixation, caused by deprivation or over-indulgence) in the Phallic stage, produces an excessively selfcentred, narcissistic personality; sex roles are often insecure (because the Oedipus or Electra complex is unresolved) and this may lead to homosexuality or excessive shows of masculinity or femininity, and cause individuals to become involved in many shallow sexual relationships. 4. Latency. Boys and girls at around 5 years of age, enter a period of tranquillity. After repression in the Phallic stage, no bodily area is sensitised, and the child is not strongly attracted to any love objects. 5. The Genital Stage. This is the adult phase of genital sexuality which begins with the onset of puberty. Physiological and social pressures re-awaken the child s sex drive, and it starts to look for a partner of the opposite sex. There is little psychoanalytical description of what the genital stage of adult sexuality is like. Freud s Theory of Neurotic Illness Freud identified three types of anxiety: 1. Objective Anxiety this is a painful emotion caused by the perception of a real threat in the outside world 2. Neurotic Anxiety occurs when the ego is afraid that it will not be able to control the aggressive or sexual impulses coming from the id. If the id were to win then the person might carry out some irresponsible action that would be severely punished by society 3. Moral Anxiety is aroused when a person has done something which is offensive to their superego i.e. they worry that they may have hurt or offended someone, or behaved unethically. To protect itself from anxiety, the ego develops various defence mechanisms such as repression (which blocks instinctive impulses from the id); sublimation (where instincts are channelled into socially acceptable behaviours i.e. an aggressive man might take up boxing); and displacement (where feelings are transferred from their original target, to another which causes less anxiety e.g. a potential murderer may take out their feelings on small animals). Other ways in which the energy arising from the id may be released (and so defend the ego against anxiety) are in dreams, and Freudian Slips, when a slip of the tongue reveals a concealed fear or attitude. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 4
As long as these, and the other defence mechanisms of the ego keep the undesirable instinctual impulses from the id away from consciousness, the person can cope successfully with the problems of everyday life. However, when the defences break down, and the ego becomes aware of the conflicts between the id and the superego, then symptoms of neurotic anxiety start to develop, such as: hysteria (e.g. paralysis, writer s cramp, blindness); obsessions and compulsions; depression; phobias; free-floating anxiety; breakdowns etc. According to Freud, the symptoms of neurosis are meaningful in that they symbolise unconscious anxieties e.g. if a man had a phobia about going into lifts this might be interpreted as an unconscious fear of having sexual intercourse. The psychoanalyst s job is to explore the symbolism by techniques such as dream analysis and free association (in which the patient is allowed to say what ever comes into their mind) so that the meaning of the neurosis can be interpreted to the sufferer. Once the patient has insight into the nature of their unconscious desires, there is less need for them to be on the defensive. Energy is restored to the ego, and they are once again equipped to deal rationally with the external world The Story of Little Hans To illustrate his ideas, Freud referred to case studies of patients that he had treated. A famous example was that of Little Hans (1909) a five year old boy who had a phobia of being bitten by horses particularly white horses with blinkers and black markings around the mouth. The phobia stemmed from a time that Hans saw a horse collapse in the street. Freud interpreted this phobia in the following way. Hans was in the Oedipus stage, wanting a close and sensual relationship with his mother, and had an unconscious wish that his father (his rival) would die. Seeing the horse collapse in street reminded him unconsciously of his death wish against his father, and then made him feel guilty and afraid. So really the fear of horses symbolised his fear of his feelings towards his father. Freud supported this symbolism theory by pointing out that: Hans father had a moustache (the black markings around the mouth) and wore glasses (the blinkers); also that Hans used to play horses with his father by riding on his back, and had once said Daddy don t trot away from me! Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 5
Limitations of Freud s Theories There are many criticisms of psychoanalysis and Freud s ideas in general. Some of the major ones are: 1. That Freud did not support his theories with objective evidence. He did no experiments. 2. That he used the case-study approach and his sample was very limited, consisting mainly of middle-aged, middle-class, Jewish, Viennese women who lived around the turn of the century (a time of considerable sexual puritanism). Therefore he could not validly claim that his findings apply more generally to other cultures in different historical periods. 3. That his theories were untestable because they were worded in a way which meant that they couldn t be proved wrong. Nonetheless, despite these criticisms Freud remains perhaps the psychologist who has most influenced modern life, particularly in cultural areas like art and literature, and in the area of abnormal behaviour and psychotherapy. He has inspired many followers who have re-interpreted, revised and updated his ideas. A notable example is Erikson (1950) who broadly accepted Freud s views on the three structures of the personality (id, ego, superego) and his psychosexual stages. However, whereas Freud had not considered personality development beyond adolescence (the genital stage), Erikson added a further three stages (early, middle and late adult development) which he referred to in his book Eight Ages of Man. Erikson also gave greater emphasis to the effect of cultural and social influences on the developing child. The Humanist Approach The fundamental assumption of the humanistic approach is that humans are essentially different from the natural world (of animals, plants, matter etc.) because they are conscious of themselves, and can make choices about how to lead their lives. Humanists maintain that it is of limited value to study humans scientifically, by carrying out experiments on large groups of subjects in order to try and discover laws which enable us to understand and predict human behaviour, because ultimately humans are not bound by such laws. They are able to choose what sort of lives they want to lead on the basis of their knowledge of themselves and the world and so, because each individual is essentially unique, it is only possible to understand and predict behaviour of individuals: and even this can only be done on the basis of detailed, in depth knowledge of the individual concerned. The two major contributors to the humanist approach were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 6
Maslow (1967) disagreed with the approach of Freud and other theorists who built their theories of personality from their studies of neurotic, maladapted people, and was more concerned with normal, healthy, well-adjusted individuals. He believed that everyone has an inner need or drive to be healthy, and to grow both physically and psychologically so that they can reach their full potential, and make the most of their abilities and their lives. He referred to this as the need to self-actualise, and suggests that it is fundamental to psychological health. Although we all have this need, different individuals will strive to achieve it in different ways according to their own abilities and preferences. Some may achieve it through their work, others through their hobbies, or through sport, but the essential element in self-actualisation is that it involves some form of mastery or control over the environment. Maslow (1970) also suggested that we have a hierarchy of needs, which can be seen in the figure below. The lower needs (for example, for food, safety, etc.) will, if unfulfilled, take priority over higher ones. Thus a starving person will be dominated by the need to find food and will have little concern for the need to gain approval, or for understanding the world, or for appreciating works of art. Only when one need has been met can we move on to reach the next one. So self-actualization is only possible when the physiological, safety, belonging, love and esteem needs have been met. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 7
So if we find ourselves in an environment which is too harsh or unstable to allow us to achieve mastery or control then we feel threatened and have to lower our needs. Maslow suggests that the personality of an individual will reflect the extent to which they are able to achieve their needs in the environment in which they find themselves. For example, if they are unable to satisfy their love needs their personality will be dominated by behaviour which is linked to finding a partner. When individuals are able to self-actualise, Maslow said that they are likely to have the following characteristics: a. They perceive reality accurately, and can tolerate uncertainty. b. They accept themselves and others for what they are. c. They are able to be spontaneous in thought and actions. d. They are problem centred, not self-centred. e. They have a good sense of humour. f. They are able to look at life objectively. g. They are highly creative. h. They are neither conforming, nor purposely unconventional. i. They are concerned for the welfare of mankind. j. They are capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experiences. k. They can establish deep satisfying relationships with a few people. l. They experience peak experiences. Rogers agrees with Maslow that humans have a need to grow and develop, and that they will quite naturally do this unless they are prevented from doing so by pressure from other people, or environmental problems, in which case they will take on defensive personalities. Like Maslow, he also calls this need to grow and develop and reach our full potential, the need to self-actualise. However, each individual has different potentials and abilities, and so the activities which lead to self-actualisation will vary from person to person. Rogers also attaches great importance to another fundamental human need which he refers to as the need for positive regard. Everyone, he says needs to have some kind of positive regard, i.e. love and affection from other people, this is a basic need which we cannot do without. Whereas psychoanalytical theories of personality emphasise the importance of unconscious forces (the id, and the superego) on personality, Rogers puts much more emphasis on our conscious awareness of ourselves. He said that people do have very clear ideas about their inner-selves, i.e. their own thoughts, feelings and reactions. Indeed people know more about themselves and their inner feelings than anyone else can, and it is this view of themselves which Rogers calls the selfconcept - which is all important regarding their personalities. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 8
The self-concept contains three components: 1. the ego-identity or self image, which is how we see ourselves; 2. the ego-ideal, or ideal self which is how we think we ought to be, and is largely determined by what our parents wanted us to be; 3. self-esteem which is the degree to which we like or accept ourselves, and is determined by the gap between our ego-identity and our ego-ideal (thus if we see ourselves as identical to what we think we ought to be then our self-esteem will be high, whereas if we see ourselves as very much less than we would like to be then our self-esteem will be low). If our self-esteem is low, then our personality may become dominated by the need for positive regard. This may mean that we strive to achieve our ego ideal and become a good person if we found, as children, that our parents only liked us when we were good. This need for positive regard may mean that all our energy goes into trying to be good and earn people s approval, so we cannot grow and develop as separate individuals and self-actualise. So Rogers sees personality as a kind of mask that we use to deal with people in day to day living so as to hide bad things about ourselves and to create good impressions in order to earn the liking of others. We all do this to some extent, but if the mask or social-self becomes too extreme, we will know we are acting-out a sham, and this will lead to internal pressures and conflicts that will hinder our development, and may cause personality problems. Limitations of the Humanist Approach The major issue regarding humanism is whether it is a valid part of psychology. Critics suggest that it is more closely related to philosophy than to psychology, for the following reasons: 1. It derives from a philosophical school known as existentialism; 2. Psychology is defined as a science, but humanism rejects the scientific approach of doing experiments on people in order to obtain objective data that can be analysed statistically. It prefers instead to rely on individual s subjective accounts of their experience, and such accounts may be unreliable. Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 9
Possible Activities Write down a dream and attempt to analyse it from a Freudian perspective. Identify and analyse a Freudian slip. Analyse a film or video from a Freudian perspective. Evaluate one of Freud s case studies. Identify and describe three core conditions which Rogers describes in his approach to counselling. Analyse your day in terms of Maslow s hierarchy of needs. Discuss limitations of relying on individual experience as data in psychology. TUTOR TALK: Now all that remains to do is for you to answer the questions and return your completed test paper to the College for marking. Well done so far. Copyright Reserved Nothing great will ever be achieved without great mean, and men are great only if they are determined to be so. Charles De Gaulle Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 10
STUDENT NOTES: Please use the space below for recording what you consider to be any pertinent information or notes. You may find it helpful to refer back to it later on! Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 11
STUDENT NOTES: Please use the space below for recording what you consider to be any pertinent information or notes. You may find it helpful to refer back to it later on! Advanced Psychology Diploma Course Assignment Four Page 12