CNS-2: Physiology: Vision The eyes are the windows to the soul This is the 3rd lecture in CNS-2 Physiology. In this lecture we will talk about one of our special senses, and that is the Vision. Hopefully this sheet will cover the following: A: Layers of the eye and some clinical applications. B: Retina, Visual adaption, and ganglionic cells. C: Visual pathways. D: MRI -------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
A: Layers of the eye and some clinical applications: The eye consists of 3 layers: Sclera, choroid, and Retina. Sclera gives the eyes their shape, while Choroid is responsible for the blood supply; sensory processing and detection of light are the functions of the Retina of the eye. Anteriorly, we have the Cornea which is responsible for the passage & refraction of light in addition to its protection function. Behind the cornea we have the Iris; which is the colored part of the eye, its function is to determine the amount of the light that will pass through the eye by controlling the diameter and size of the pupil. The Pupil (which is found in the center of the iris) can be dilated or constricted by the effect of muscles and both the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems. We also have muscles like lateral and medial recti muscles that move the eye to the desired direction. There are 2 fluid compartments in the eye: vitreous humor and aqueous humor; fluid is under continuous production, and obviously excessive production, or decrease in filtration, will lead to increase in pressure, this increase will lead to death of blood vessels & nerves (direct death of neurons) by compressing them, also it will impede blood nourishment to the retina leading eventually to what is known as Glaucoma ء ار.ا Glaucoma can be treated by drugs, however in some cases surgical intervention is required to correct the eye. There is a depressed part in the retina called Fovea Centralis (or macula), in which high detailed vision is achieved. Almost only cones receptors are found in this part with almost no rods, also cons are found in high densities and small sizes(smaller or as the same size of rods); this will make images in this part with high pixels (due to number of cons/area) and 2
more detailed and accurate. Other layers of the retina are shifted to the sides (not directly in front of the visual field) allowing the light to pass with no interference in other compartments of the retina. Note: Moving the eyes horizontally (right to left) is actually for focusing the desired image (its light waves) on the macula. Degeneration in the retina is more targeted toward the cons than the rods, this will lead to Macular Degeneration; usually it is age related, however it can be caused by diabetes or other diseases, also it can be genetic (i.e. Juvenile type macular degeneration (Stargardt Disease).Such patients (macular degeneration pts.) will have normal vision but when image radiation hit on the macula there will be blank area in the formed picture, as the following: Normal vision Macular Degeneration This will culminate when macular degeneration patients look at faces; they will be able to see everything except faces (its sth called spotoma), usually this can be beaten by specialized lenses that will shift central radiations to the periphery to deliver it to other sites, or through behavioral therapy (by training those patients to look at shoulder area of human, leading to centering the shoulders on the macula, and consequently radiation from the face will be shifted to the periphery). B: Retina, Visual adaption, and ganglionic cells: We have many layers in the retina: the first one from the back is pigmented layer that will absorb the light and prevent reflection of it, so light will contact with the receptors just once, not twice. Then we have the receptors layers that will detect the information and pass it to bipolar cells that will pass it to ganglion cell from which axons will form the optic nerve that will enter the central nervous system. 3
ا ور- cell 2 types of cells found horizontally called horizontal cell and Amacrine -they will do the processing of light signals at the level of the retina; before the passage of information to the ganglion. Cons & rods are the two types of photo receptors, cons are of 3 subtypes that are responsible for colored vision, while rods will only show black/gray color during night. In fovea centralis (macula) we almost exclusively have cones but when we move away from it cons will be reduced and rods will be increased until reaching the upper periphery where there is almost no cons. Blood vessels & nerves enter and leave through an area called optic disc where there are no cons & rods (due to the absence of retina in this area), so it is referred to as the blind spot. We don t see blind spots for 3 reasons; A) We have two eyes so each blind spot from an eye will cancel the other. B) Due to continuous movement of the eye. This explains why there is no blind spot when you close one eye. C) Brain pattern: when focusing on a point -when there is no eye movement- blind spots are non-existent because the brain will fill the image which its radiation reached the blind spot area and will fill it from its surroundings using brain pattern (it s like photo editing). Remember that We see with our brains, not eyes. To test the brain pattern thing, do the following experiment: 4
1 st : you will need a white paper, pen (or pencil), and ruler (optional) 2 nd : using your pen (or pencil: P), draw two points with a space between them of about 10-20 cm. 3 rd : now with one eye closed, look at your masterpiece (the two points on paper), when you see the two points then both of them are on the retina. 4 th : try focusing your opened eye on one point only and look closer, and closer you will notice that the other point disappeared; because it has hit the blind spot, so the brain is not seeing it and there is a gap in the image, so the brain can t understand that there is another point so it will fill it with the background ( white color). This experiment illustrates the concept of blind spot and brain pattern. Photoreceptors: we have the cons & rods as photoreceptors. Rods have rhodopsin. Cons have photopsin which is of many types each of which will maximally absorb light, and produce maximum action potential depending on certain wave length that will divide waves into: 1)high, 2)middle, & 3)low frequencies. You can see more than one color due to the overlap between photopsins and the percentage of activation of each one of them. On the other side, Rods cover broad wave length. Light detection: when there is light there will be a decrease in the release of Glutamate, to see clearly we need adaptation according to the light. Adaptation will occur at three levels: 5
1) Pupil s size adjustment: very quick, less than second, when we face any light there will be constriction of the pupil, while in the absence of light (in the Darkness) there will pupil dilatation. (This is achieved by sympathetic and parasympathetic). Pupillary light reflex: after light detection, impulses will travel through the optic nerve reaching the two sides of midbrain (Bilatellay) in the tectum, and each one of the optic nerves will innervate Edinger-Wesphal Nucleus, which is a parasympathetic nucleus; then it will send the impulses to the occulomotor nerve leading to pupils constriction, so each eye will send impulses to the two sides of midbrain, that will innervate EW nuclei leading to pupils constriction. 2) Neuronal adaptation: here the same neuron will have a decreased action potential or reduction in the receptors on it or maybe channels. 3) Photoreceptor adaptation: depending on the amount of light; photoreceptors and detection mechanisms will be adapted. The light cycle has 2 components: A) The component that will convert photo pigments from 11-Cis form to the active All-Trans form. B) The component that by enzymes will replace the active Trans form back to the inactive Cis form. 6
If the second component was more rapid then the first component, then eventually and after a while the concentration of the compound that can absorb the light (initial compound) will decrease, leading to decreased sensitivity to light. This is the case when the amount of light is increasing. If the first component was more rapid then the second component, then eventually and after a while the concentration of the compound that can absorb the light (initial compound) will increase, leading to increased sensitivity to light. This is the case when the amount of light is decreasing. Look at the following figure, the 1 st component is the 1 st quadrant of the cycle, while the second component is the last 3 quadrants of the cycle. Note: differences between photoreceptors shall be considered as follow; the initial compound at the start level in the rods is more than it in cons, so at any circumstances the eye won t be able to see under a certain level; however the converting enzymes in the cons are faster than those in the rods. Cons are faster in adaptation than rods, but the level of adaptation is lower so they won t be highly sensitive. In other words; the rods have more proteins, so they adapt better, allowing us to see at lower light intensity. Photoreceptor adaptation takes long time to occur, so it is not considered fast adaptation like pupils size & Neuronal adaptation. It s noteworthy that photoreceptor adaptation depends on the initial compound (which is the 11-Cis-retinal 7
compound) that depends on Vitamin A, So if there were Vitamin A deficiency the initial compound will be reduced in rods (since it is more in it), this will affect vision in low light conditions leading to what s known as Night Blindness. Vitamin A supplements are used in this condition to reverse this process and it usually require 1-2 weeks until night vision become better. Note: check on the internet how night blindness patient see; because it won t be clear on papers and will consume a lot of unnecessary black ink. Similar to cons degeneration in macula, degeneration in the periphery s rods is also possible leading to Retinitis pigmentosa, it will start from the periphery and spread medially, patient will start to lose vision at the periphery & almost see things only centrally, and this state of vision is described as tunnel vision; In this case rods will disappear and will be replaced by pigmented cell layer hence the name (Retinitis pigmentosa). Patients will perceive images as the following: We have visual processing at the level of the retina, here we have more than one cell type, ganglia are the only cells that can make action potential, because their function is to send information (impulses) to the brain, while other cells are for detection and processing, that s why processing happen through graded potential, horizontal cells (that were mentioned before); both help in visual processing at the level of the retina. When there is light, there will be decrease in Glutamate release, recall that the effect depends on the receptor not neurotransmitter. Two types of bipolar cells are present; one have excitatory receptors while the others have inhibitory receptors, so when Glutamate decreases; the cells that have excitatory receptors will be inhibited. On the other hand, the cells that have inhibitory receptors will be 8
activated; this will be translated to ganglion cell, so we ll have on-center & off-center. Same principle apply for color vision, but remember that each type absorb a certain wavelength. On-center will produce action potential when there is central radiations (i.e. coming from the center), and the opposite will occur if the light came from the periphery. The more light is in the center the more firing of action potential from On-center bipolar cell, however if the light increases in the periphery there will be inhibition, and if the light wasn t on the field vision will be at spontaneous level; The same principle applies for color vision. Determined by their shape, type, and destination; Ganglion cells are mainly of 3 subtypes: 1-X ganglion: is the most important one, it is small with small receptive field spreading on the retina, usually found more in the central part of the retina and in the fovea centralis and it contain more cons than rods, also it s with better accuracy; because it doesn t receive from wide field, and because it perceive details, it is more related to the detailed vision. 2-Y ganglions: are large, widely spread over the retina in the periphery, and with higher receptive field and it contains more rods than cons, it is concerned with general shape of the image than details, more involved in motion, also it receives more and more form amacrine cells(which is responsible for processing of moving images). 3-W ganglion: similar to Y ganglion, also it s found in the periphery, mainly it receives from amacrine cells than bipolar cells or rods, and also like Y it is involved in the moving images. Main branch of optic nerve will go to the optic tract; from their main destination of optic information is the thalamus, especially lateral geniculate body. Lateral geniculate is divided into six layers; in 2 layers we have large cells called Magnocellular layer (layers 1+2). While in the other 4 layers we have small cells called Parvocellular layer (layers 3-6). 9
The right lateral geniculate body will receive sensory input from the left and right eye, so the 2 magnocellar will serve for both the ipsilateral eye and the contralateral eye (one for each eye). Also parvocellular will serve for ipsi &contra-lateral eyes (2 parvocellular for each eye). X ganglion will send to the parvocellular layer, while the Y Ganglion will send to magnocellular. Then from the LGB visual information will ascend to the cortex. The signal from X and Y will remain separated till it reaches the cortex. This how we see images by magnocellular and parvocellular: Normal Magnocellular only Parvocellular only ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- C: Visual pathways: In this section Prof Loai mentioned the general vision pathway & some other pathways associated with its components. General Visual pathway: impulses form optic nerve (CNII) will travel to optic chiasm and from here to the optic tract that ends in the Lateral Geniculate nucleus of thalamus, through optic radiation it will reach primary visual area of cerebral cortex (Broadman area #17) in occipital lobe. 10
Remember that nasal part of radiation crosses to the other side in the optic chiasm, but temporal part of radiation doesn t cross. Also note that the upper part of retina will go to the upper part of the visual area, but it receives the image from the lower part of the visual field. The temporal part of radiation is called Meyer s loop (its fibers are not straight; they curve and then get down. They are the higher part of optic radiation), it will go deep and anterior, it will reach almost to the end of temporal lobe until reaching the hippocampus, and any lesion to this area will damage the Meyer s loop that will lead to Upper Quadrant anopia. Radiation will come from both eyes, nasal radiation will cross while the temporal won t cross; through this the right visual field will go to the left & vice versa; the same principle applies in the retina. Damage in the optic radiation will lead to hemianopina in the contralateral side. Other pathways: a branch from the optic nerve will travel to the LGB, the optic nerve have more than one target after giving the optic chiasm: The first target is the hypothalamus, serving a function related to the day-night cycle (circadian rhythm), in this pathway there is a specific type of ganglion cells that will not receive from any receptor, this ganglion cell has specific light detective proteins called Melanopsin, and that s why they are called Melanopsin ganglionic cell, they will detect light and send the information to the hypothalamus. Its noteworthy that in cases of degeneration of rods or cons this pathway will not be affected and hence its function won t be affected, however brain damage or retinal detachment (loss of blood supply) will ultimately affect this pathway. 11
The second target is the mid-brain, actually there are two targets in the midbrain ; the first one is to the pre-tectum and this is for pupil reflex and light reflex, the second one which is more important is to the superior colliculus (head movement and processing of visual information motor-wise) which is responsible for direct reflexes related to head movement and eye movement similar to the tectospinal tract, however it will yield more processed information that the cortex will harness to direct the direction of movement, it will ascend to the cortex through pulvinar in the thalamus then to association cortex of the vision(mainly parietal lobe)( since it s processed information). The third target is to Lateral Geniculat nucleus (LGN), to striatal primary visual cortex. We have two principle branches of optic nerve pathway; one for movement and motion and depth, the other is mainly for information. 12
X ganglion impulses will go exclusively to the lateral geniculate (parvacellular layer) and from there it will travel to primary visual cortex (broadman area#17) particularly the 4th layer(the destination of sensory information), through this pathway colored and detailed vision is achieved also information will travel in the 18th broadman area ( association area found in the medial and ventral part of the brain) after reaching area 17.This is called the What pathway, through which analysis of images and pictures take place ( What do you see(shape)? What s the color?). Y ganglion impulses will travel mainly to the magnocellular layer of LGB, and from there to the sensory radiation to broadman area#17 (primary visual cortex) in cerebral cortex also in the 4th layer, also it will travel to association areas ( Broadman area#18) in superior part of occipital lobe and posterior part of parietal lobe, and dorsal field ; this is called Where pathway, it is related to dynamic and motion characteristics of objects and spatial properties. Also a little number of fibers travel through the superior colliculus. W ganglion & small part of Y ganglion will send impulses to the superior colliculus, and from there to the pulvinar and finally to the association visual cortex (also layer 4). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ D: MRI: In this MRI you can see damages to many areas see the results of each damage from the picture next to it 13
In the coronal MRI we can see the Hippocampus and the damage will be in Meyer s loop, causing quadrantinopia (quadrant anopia ). In the axial MRI in the level of temporal lobe we can see Meyer s loop, too. Please refer to the slides ---------------------------------------------------------------- Special thanks to Isam Bsisu أ.-,ر+* أي '() & $% أو "! ي. ز 3-2 0: 1 ء ا;:* د 678 ر 14