4 Cell cycle and division
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1 4 Cell cycle nd divisin Cndidtes shuld be ble t: () (b) (c) understnd the imprtnce f cell divisin in grwth nd reprductin. recgnize the vrius stges f cell cycle. utline nd cmpre the prcesses mitsis nd meisis. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-1
2 4.1 Cell cycle Define Cell cycle is the reprductive cycle f the cell whereby well-crdinted sequence f events ccurs between the frmtin f cell nd its divisin int dughter cells. Cells reprduce by duplicting their cntents fllwed by dividing int tw. This pttern f grwth nd divisin increses cell numbers in living things. Therefre, the cell cycle is fundmentl in ll living rgnisms fr prpgtin. The durtin f the cell cycle vries gretly frm ne cell type t nther. Hwever, ll cell cycles require the essentil prcesses f cell reprductin t be fulfilled. These essentil prcesses f cell reprductin tht must ccur in rder fr the cell cycle t prgress re: DN replictin. segregtin f replicted chrmsme int tw seprte dughter cells. These tw prcesses re relted t checkpints in the cell cycle. Checkpints cn be thught s brkes where the cell cycle is stpped r rrested t ensure tht essentil prcesses hves been perfrmed befre cntinuing the cycle. G 2 checkpint: This ensures ll DN re replicted befre prgressing t M phse (M = mittic). Metphse checkpint: This checks whether ll chrmsmes re ligned n spindles befre prceeding thrugh nphse. 4-2 HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
3 Stges nd phses f cell cycle In typicl eukrytic cell, the cell cycle cnsists f three stges: Interphse: Cells d nt nrmlly divide cntinuusly. Interphse is the nn-dividing perid in the cell cycle tht elpses between tw divisins. Mitsis The lng Interphse ccunts fr 90% f the cell cycle, where there is cell grwth nd intense metblic ctivity. The durtin f Interphse is vrible depending n the functin f the cell. Grwth t cellulr level is ccmplished by the synthesis f nucleic cids, crbhydrtes, prteins, lipids nd ther bilgicl mlecules. Interphse hs three sub-phses: G 1, S nd G 2 phses. Cytplsmic divisin Metphse checkpint ll centrmeres ttched t spindles? ll DN replicted? G 2 checkpint Grwth nd preprtin fr mitsis G 2 M S G 1 Grwth nd nrml metblic rles DN replictin Figure typicl cell cycle 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-3
4 Tble The fur successive phses f typicl eukrytic cell cycle. Stge Phse Events within the cell Interphse Mitsis Cytkinesis G 1 (G = Gp) S (S = Synthesis) G 2 (G = Gp) M M Grwth nd nrml metblic rles: Intensive cellulr synthesis: rgnelles synthesis TP synthesis RN synthesis in nuclelus prtein (bth structurl nd functinl) synthesis Increse in cytplsm results in cell grwth. When grwth exceeds certin size, cell prgresses t the S phse fr DN replictin. Substnces prduced in this phse will stimulte r inhibit the nset f the next phse. DN replictin ccurs: Histnes re synthesized. DN cntent f the cell dubles when DN strnds replicte. DN strnds cil rund the histnes t frm chrmtin. Cells in the Interphse cntin mstly chrmtin in reltively decndensed frm, knwn s euchrmtin. Grwth nd preprtin fr mitsis: Intensive cellulr synthesis: rgnelles replictin e.g. mitchndri nd chlrplsts in plnts divide. TP synthesis t increse the energy stre fr cell divisin. synthesis f histnes nd spindle prteins. centriles in niml cells replicte. Cells f higher plnts lck centriles. Fur phses f nucler divisin: Prphse Metphse nphse Telphse Equl distributin f rgnelles nd cytplsm int ech dughter cell. 4-4 HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
5 Wrked Exmples Fundmentl () Define cell cycle. (b) Nme the fur phses f the cell cycle. Stte the crrespnding stge f the cell cycle t ech phse. Slutin: () Cell cycle is the reprductive cycle f the cell whereby wellcrdinted sequence f events ccurs between the frmtin f cell nd its divisin int dughter cells. (b) G 1, S, G 2 nd M phses. Interphse cnsists f the G 1, S nd G 2 phses. Mitsis nd cytkinesis (cytplsmic divisin) re in the M phse. Chllenging The durtin f the cell cycle vries gretly frm ne cell type t nther. The erly embrynic cell cycle is ne tht hs cycle time tht is exceptinlly rpid. The min functin f the lrge egg cell is t subdivide int mny smller cells s fst s pssible. () ccunt, in cntrst t the typicl eukrytic cell cycle, fr the shrt cycle time in the erly embrynic cell cycle. (b) Stte tw prminent events within such lrge egg cell. Slutin: () When the lrge egg cell subdivides int mny smller cells, n grwth is invlved. Therefre in the erly embrynic cell cycle, nly the S phse nd M phse lternte. Unlike the typicl eukrytic cell cycle where there re fur phses, in the sequence f G 1, S, G 2 nd M phses, there re n intervening G 1 nd G 2 phses. (b) DN replictin nd nucler divisin/chrmsme segregtin. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-5
6 4.2 Nucler divisin (Mitsis) Define Mitsis is the prcess f nucler divisin tht results in tw dughter cells ech hving nucleus cntining the sme number nd geneticlly identicl chrmsmes s the prent cell. Mitsis hppens exclusively in eukrytic cells (nimls nd plnts). The genetic mteril exists in the frm f DN. Chrmtins: Cmplexes f DN tightly ciled rund prteins clled histnes. Chrmtins re dispersed thrughut the nucleus during Interphse nd cnnt be seen esily under micrscpe. Chrmsmes: Chrmtins cndense t frm chrmsmes during mitsis nd meisis tht re visible structures under micrscpe. Ech chrmsme hs ne centrmere. Sister chrmtids: Replicted frm f chrmsmes jined by centrmere. One sister chrmtid cnsists f ne DN mlecule with its sscited prteins. Bth sister chrmtids re identicl since they re replicted frm the sme DN mlecule. Phses f mitsis In typicl eukrytic cell, mitsis cn be divided int fur principle stges fter Interphse (refer t Tble 4.1.1): Prphse: In erly Prphse, chrmtin in the nucleus begins t cndense nd becmes visible s chrmsmes (duble strnded). The replicted centriles begin t mve t ppsite ends f the cell. In lte Prphse, the nuclelus disppers nd nucleus membrne disssembles. Spindle fibers frm frm micrtubules, extending frm the centriles. Sme fibers crss the cell t frm the mittic spindle. Metphse: Spindles tht re cmpletely frmed ttch t the kinetchres t the centrmere regin f chrmsmes. Cntrctin f spindle fibers ligns the chrmsmes lng the equtr f spindles, ls knwn s metphse plte. nphse: Centrmeres divide nd the pired chrmsmes seprte. Spindle fibers pull ech dughter centrmere, thus seprting ech sister chrmtid t ppsite ples f the cell. 4-6 HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
7 Telphse: Chrmsmes (single strnded) rrive t ppsite ples f cell, nd new membrne frms rund ech dughter nucleus. The chrmsmes decndense. The spindle fibers disintegrte. Cytkinesis r the prtitining f the cell begins immeditely fter this stge. Tw diplid cells DN replictin Prphse Metphse nphse Telphse (fllwed by cytkinesis) Figure Mitsis Imprtnce f mitsis Ensures genetic stbility within the ppultin f cells derived frm prentl cells. Mitsis prduces tw dughter cells which hve sme number f chrmsmes nd re geneticlly identicl t their prentl cell. Therefre, mitsis des nt intrduce genetic vritin. dvntge: Fvurble trits cn be pssed dwn frm genertin t genertin. Disdvntge: Genetic vritin increses the prbbility f survivl. Withut genetic vritin, n entire ppultin cn be wiped ut when there is chnge in the envirnment. Multicellulr grwth: Mitsis results in n increse in the number f cells fund in n rgnism withut ltering the genetic cntent. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-7
8 In tissue/cell replcement, mitsis ensures tht during the repir f dmged tissues, the dmged cells re replced by exct cpies f the riginl cells. Such repir will restre the functin f the tissue. Regenertin f tissue cn ccur t vrying extents in multicellulr rgnisms. sexul reprductin: This ccurs when single prent prduces ffspring tht re geneticlly identicl t itself. sexul reprductin cn be dvntgeus under stble envirnment. The ffspring cn receive exctly the sme set f genetic mteril frm the prent t survive nd subsequently reprduce under the sme cnditins. Such ppultin cn reprduce rpidly with idel cnditins fr its genes. Wrked Exmples Fundmentl () Explin the significnce f ech phse f mitsis. (b) Wht re the imprtnt fetures f mitsis tht ensure the prductin f geneticlly identicl cells? Slutin: () Prphse: Chrmtin cndenses int cmpct, visible chrmsmes. This llws chrmsmes t mve nd seprte esily withut entnglement. The disppernce f nuclelus nd nucler membrne llws spindle fibers t frm crss the cell between the ples. The frmtin f spindle fibers rgnizes chrmsme mvement nd lignment in the lter stges f mitsis. Metphse: Ech chrmsme with pir f sister chrmtids is ligned lng the equtr f spindles. This lignment ensures tht when centrmeres split, the spindle fibers will pull ne sister chrmtid f ech pir t ppsite ples. s result, equl divisin f chrmsmes is ensured nd ech dughter cell will hve cmplete cpy f genetic mteril f the prent cell. nphse: Equl distributin f chrmsmes (single strnded DN) int ech dughter cell ensures genetic stbility. Telphse: In this stge, new nuclelus nd nucleus membrne re frmed. This prepres ech dughter nucleus fr nrml ctivities in ech dughter cell. 4-8 HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
9 (b) The fine cntrl f DN replictin f the prent cell during Interphse ensures tht twice the munt f genetic mteril exists befre M phse. The rrngement f the chrmsmes n the spindle during metphse nd cntrctin f the spindle pulling the chrmsmes t the ppsite ples, ensure even distributin f chrmsmes in dughter cells. Since the sister chrmtids tht re seprted t the ppsite ples re identicl (bth replicted frm the sme DN), the resultnt dughter cells re geneticlly identicl. Chllenging Briefly explin hw cncer rises due t uncntrlled cell divisin. Slutin: Cncer is disese in which cells begin dividing excessively resulting in the frmtin f mss f cncerus cells clled tumur. It ccurs when the cells escpe the cntrl mechnism f the cell cycle tht nrmlly limit their grwth, thus leding t uncntrlled cell grwth. In cncerus cells, muttins hve ccurred in the genes tht cntrl cell divisin. Genes (prt-ncgenes) tht nrmlly prmte nrml cell grwth nd divisin cn becme mutted (ncgenes). Genes (tumur suppressrs) tht functin t suppress cell grwth nd divisin cn ls becme mutted. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-9
10 4.3 Nucler divisin (Meisis) Define Meisis is the prcess f nucler divisin tht gives rise t fur reprductive cells (gmetes), ech with hlf the chrmsme number f the prent cell. Diplid cell is cell with tw sets f chrmsmes, ne pternlly nd ther mternlly derived. Chrmsmes re in hmlgus pirs. smtic cell is diplid. Hplid cell is cell with ne set f chrmsmes nd there re n hmlgus pirs. Gmetes r sex cells (e.g. eggs nd sperms) re hplid. Smtic cell is ny plnt r niml cell ther thn germ cell. Germ cell is precursr cell tht gives rise t gmete. Unin f hplid egg nd sperm during fertiliztin prduces diplid embry. Hmlgus chrmsme is pir f chrmsmes, ne mternl nd ne pternl, tht hve reltively similr structures (e.g. length nd centrmere psitin) nd gene (llele might be different). During Metphse I, ech duplicted chrmsme will pir with its hmlgus prtner t frm bivlent which cntins fur chrmtids. Meisis ccurs nly in the prcess f gmetgenesis, i.e. frmtin f gmetes. Sexul reprductin prmtes vritin becuse ech gmete (sperm r egg) cntins mixture f genes frm tw different prents. Phses f meisis Meisis cnsists f tw successive nucler divisins Meisis I (reductin in chrmsme number) nd Meisis II (divisin). Phses f Meisis I: Interphse I: Sme s mitsis (Refer t Tble 4.1.1) HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
11 Prphse I: The piring f hmlgus chrmsmes (ech hmlg is duble strnded) t frm bivlents. This event is ls knwn s synpsis. Bivlents further cndense. Chismt frmtin nd crssing ver (refer t Figure 4.3.2) my ccur. Other events re similr t the Prphse f mitsis chrmtin cndenses int chrmsmes, the nuclelus disppers, nucler membrne disssembles, centriles mve t ppsite ends f the cell nd spindles frm. Metphse I: Spindles re cmpletely frmed nd micrtubules f spindle ttch t the kinetchres t the centrmere regin f chrmsmes. Hmlgus chrmsmes re still clsely sscited. Bivlents lign lng the equtr f the spindle by dynmic cntrctin f spindle fibres. nphse I: Hmlgus chrmsmes seprte, nd re drwn t ppsite ples by the spindle fibers tht re ttched t the centrmeres. The centrmeres in nphse I remin intct. Telphse I: This is similr t telphse f mitsis, except tht nly ne set f (duble strnded) chrmsmes is in ech dughter cell. Depending n species, new nucler envelpe my r my nt frm. Nuclelus refrms. In plnts, cytkinesis des nt ccur fter Telphse I. Tw hplid cells DN replictin Prphse I Metphse I nphse I Telphse (fllwed by cytkinesis) Figure Meisis I withut Chismt frmtin nd crssing ver. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-11
12 Interphse II where replictin f centriles but n replictin f DN my ccur befre Meisis II. Phses f Meisis II re similr t thse f mitsis: Prphse II Metphse II nphse II Telphse II Fur hplid cells with single strnded chrmsmes Tw hplid cells with duble strnded chrmsmes Prphse II Metphse I nphse II Telphse II (fllwed by cytkinesis) Figure Meisis II Imprtnce f meisis Ensures genetic stbility genertin fter genertin by keeping the chrmsme number in ech species cnstnt. Meisis prduces hplid (n) gmetes (egg nd sperm) fr sexul reprductin. During fertiliztin, the nuclei f mle nd femle gmetes fuse t prduce zygte with diplid (2n) number f chrmsmes. s result, the diplid cnditin f cells is restred. The zygte develps int the embry, then int the multicellulr rgnism with diplid (2n) number f chrmsmes in ll the smtic cells in the bdy. One set f chrmsmes frm the mther (egg) nd the ther frm the fther (sperm) HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
13 Cnsequence if meisis des nt ccur: Fusin f mle nd femle gmetes will result in dubling f the number f chrmsmes fr every successive sexully reprduced genertin. Genetic vritin is mde pssible by tw events in meisis: Genetic crssing ver: The brekge nd rejining between nnsister chrmtids f bivlent result in the exchnge f lleles. Hmlgus chrmsme pir up t frm bivlent Centrmere Sister chrmtids Nn-sister chrmtids Chism (plurl: Chismt) Nn-sister chrmtids Figure Nn-sister chrmtids f bivlent twist rund ech ther t frm cntct pint clled chism. Then crssing ver ccurs where there is reciprcl exchnge f lleles t frm recmbinnt chrmsmes. Gmetes (withut crssing ver) E E E E e either e e e Prent cell r E e e e E E Gmetes (with ne crssing ver) Figure Pssible genetic cmbintins with crssing ver. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-13
14 Independent ssrtment f chrmsmes tht results in different cmbintins f chrmsmes in the dughter cells: During Metphse I, the hmlgus chrmsmes re rndmly ligned t the equtr. The rrngement f ne pir f hmlgus chrmsme t the equtr is independent f ther pirs f hmlgus chrmsme. During nphse I, the chrmsmes f ne hmlgus pir seprtes independently f ther pirs. 2 n pssible cmbintins where n = hplid number. Fr humns, ech smtic cell hs 46 chrmsmes nd ech gmete hs 23 chrmsmes. Therefre n = 23, resulting in 2 23 pssible cmbintins f mternl nd pternl chrmsmes. b b b B b Prent cell either r B B B B B B b b Gmetes (where n = 2, 2 2 r 4 pssible cmbintins) b Figure Pssible genetic cmbintins with independent ssrtment HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
15 Tble The differences between mitsis nd meisis. Number f divisins Prphse Metphse nphse Telphse Mitsis One Cnsists f prphse, metphse, nphse nd telphse N piring f hmlgus chrmsmes N chismt frmtin N crssing ver Individul chrmsmes, ech with tw sister chrmtids, lign t the equtr f the spindles. Centrmeres divide nd sister chrmtids seprte t ppsite ples. Tw dughter cells re frmed. Ech cntins the sme number f chrmsmes s the prent cell. Bth hmlgus chrmsmes re present in ech dughter nuclei (i.e. diplid). Ech chrmsme is single strnded. Meisis Tw Meisis I (reductin phse) Meisis II (mittic phse) Prphse I: Hmlgus chrmsmes pir up t frm bivlents. Chismt frmtin between nn-sister chrmtids f hmlgus chrmsmes Crssing ver (f cmplementry lleles) my ccur Prphse II: Similr t mitsis During Metphse I, bivlents lign t the equtr f the spindles. During Metphse II, individul pirs f chrmtids lign t the equtr f the spindles. During nphse I, centrmeres d nt divide nd hmlgus chrmsmes seprte t ppsite ples. During nphse II, centrmeres divide nd chrmtids seprte t ppsite ples. Telphse I: Tw dughter cells re frmed. Ech cntins hlf the number f chrmsmes f the prent cell. Only ne f ech pir f hmlgus chrmsmes is present in ech dughter nuclei (i.e. hplid). Ech chrmsme is duble strnded. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-15
16 Occurrence My ccur in hplid, diplid r plyplidy cells nd during the frmtin f smtic cells. In plnt meristemtic cells e.g. rt nd sht tips fr grwth. In niml epithelium cells fr repir nd replcement f wrn ut cells. In eukrytic unicellulr rgnism e.g. meb. Telphse II: Fur hplid dughter cells re frmed. Ech chrmsme is single strnded. Only ccurs in diplid r plyplidy cells nd during the frmtin f gmetes r spres. In plnt sex rgns e.g. pllen scs nd vries. In niml sex rgns e.g. testes nd vries HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
17 Wrked Exmples Fundmentl () Distinguish between the terms: (i) hplid nd diplid; nd (ii) centrmere nd centrile. (b) Describe hw genetic vritins in gmetes rise. (c) Wht is the imprtnce f genetic vritin in ppultin? Slutin: () (i) Hplid (n) is t hve hlf the riginl number f chrmsmes. This hplid cell hs nly ne f ech hmlgus pir f chrmsmes (ne set) nd thus n hmlgus pirs. Diplid (2n) is t hve the cmplete pirs f hmlgus chrmsmes (tw sets). (ii) Centrmere is the lclized regin which jins tw sister chrmtids tgether nd where kinetchre frms t cpture spindle fiber. Centrile is pir f shrt rd structures tht re psitined t right ngles t ech ther. Centriles re fund in niml cells, lcted in the centrsme f the cell. (b) In Prphse I, there is crssing ver thrugh the physicl brekge nd rejining f nn-sister chrmtids f hmlgus chrmsmes. Subsequently, independent ssrtment f chrmsmes will result in rndm nd independent rrngement f bivlents lng the equtr in Metphse I. This is fllwed by independent seprtin f hmlgus chrmsmes in nphse I t result in different cmbintins f duble strnded chrmsmes t the end f meisis I. Genetic vritin is further enhnced with independent ssrtment f nn-sister chrmtids in Metphse II nd nphse II. (c) Ensures the survivl f species r ppultin in dynmic envirnment. 4 cell cycle nd divisin 4-17
18 Chllenging The figure belw represents the reltive munts f DN per nucleus during severl cell divisins in plnt tissue. B C 4 3 DN per nucleus/ rbitrry units 2 D E 1 F G () (i) Frm the grph, stte the letter (, B, C, D r E) tht represents the pint where the cell enters hplidy. Nme the stge. (ii) Explin yur nswer in (i). (b) Stte wht is ccurring t the pints mrked, B, C nd E. (c) Wht types f cells re prduced t F nd G? (d) Dwn syndrme is the mst frequently ccurring chrmsml disrder. Individuls with Dwn syndrme hve n extr chrmsme 21 in their genetic mke-up. Suggest nd explin the stge(s) t which meisis cn be disrupted t give rise t the chrmsme disrder. Slutin: () (i) C. Telphse I (ii) The munt f DN in ech nucleus decreses frm 4 t 2 units. This crrespnds t the first nucler divisin. During meisis I, there is seprtin f hmlgus chrmsmes f bivlent. Ech dughter cell wuld cntin ne (n) set f chrmsmes but ech chrmsme is duble strnded. (b) : replictin f DN B: Telphse f mitsis C: Telphse I f meisis E: fertiliztin/fusin f gmetes (c) F: diplid cell G: hplid cell (d) The errr culd hve ccurred t nphse I when the hmlgus chrmsmes filed t seprte. The errr culd hve ls risen t nphse II when the sister chrmtids filed t divide, resulting in hplid dughter cell with tw chrmsme 21 nd nther dughter cell withut chrmsme 21. The fusin f the gmetes with tw chrmsme 21 nd nrml gmete will give rise t Dwn syndrme HK DSE Bilgy Criticl Guide themis
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