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1 Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2007 Understanding the Relationship Between Emotional and Behavioral Dysregulation: A Cascade of Emotions Edward A. Selby Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact lib-ir@fsu.edu

2 THEFLORIDASTATEUNIVERSITY COLLEGEOFARTSANDSCIENCES UNDERSTANDINGTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENEMOTIONALAND BEHAVIORALDYSREGULATION:ACASCADEOFEMOTIONS By EDWARDA.SELBY AThesissubmittedtothe DepartmentofPsychology inpartialfulfillmentofthe requirementsforthedegreeof MasterofScience DegreeAwarded: SummerSemester,2007 Copyright2007 EdwardA.Selby AllRightsReserved

3 ThemembersoftheCommitteeapprovethethesisofEdwardAndrewSelbyonJune 26,2007 ThomasJoiner ProfessorDirectingThesis NormanB.Schmidt CommitteeMember ChrisSchatschneider CommitteeMember TheOfficeofGraduateStudieshasverifiedandapprovedtheabovenamedcommittee members

4 ThisThesisisdedicatedtomybelovedfather,JosephD.Selby.Hetaughtmeto bepassionateaboutunderstandingtheworld,andheinspiredmetodedicatemy lifetoexpandingthatunderstandingoftheworldforeveryone.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iwouldliketothankmymentor,ThomasJoiner,forallofhissupportandhelp withthisprojectandforhisdedicationtomygrowthasaresearcherand academician.iwouldalsoliketothanktheothermembersofmycommittee, BradleySchmidtandChristopherSchatsneider,fortheirinvaluablehelpin makingthisthesisanevenbetterprojectthanoriginallyconceived.

6 TABLEOFCONTENTS ListofTables...vi ListofFigures...vii Abstract...viii Introduction... Study...8 Study2...2 GeneralDiscussion...26 REFERENCES...45 BIOGRAPHICALSKETCH...5

7 LISTOFTABLES Table:Correlations,Means,StandardDeviationsStudy... Table2:FactorLoadingsofMeasurementModel... Table3:StandardizedRegressionWeightsStudy... Table4:Correlations,Means,StandardDeviationsStudy2 T... Table5:Correlations,Means,StandardDeviationsStudy2 T2... Table6:IntercorrelationsbetweenTandT2Variables... Table7:RuminationPredictingUrgency... Table8:RuminationPredictingReassuranceSeeking... Table9:RuminationPredictingBingeBeatingBehaviors... Table0:RuminationPredictingDrinkingtoCope... Table:RuminationPredictingBehavioralComposite

8 LISTOFFIGURES Figure:HypothesizedModel... Figure2:HypothesizedModelWithoutAER... Figure3:ReverseMediationalModel... Figure4:BestFittingModel

9 ABSTRACT Recentresearchsuggeststhatmanydysregulatedbehaviors,suchasbingeBeatingand nonbsuicidalselfbinjury,oftenoccurduringtimesofemotionaldistress.thesebehaviors alsoappeartodecreasenegativeaffect.whyisit,however,thatindividualsengagein thesebehaviorstoreduceemotionaldistressratherthantakingashowerortalkingtoa friend?thisstudyproposestheroleofemotionalcascades,anemotionalphenomenon thatoccurswhenanindividualintenselyruminatesonnegativeaffect,thusintensifying thatnegativeaffecttothepointthatanindividualengagesinadysregulatedbehaviorin ordertodistractfromthatrumination.thepurposeofthesestudieswastoexaminethe relationshipbetweenruminationanddysregulatedbehaviors,andindoingsodetermine ifthereissomesupportfortheemotionalcascademodel.usingtwodifferentstudies wewereabletodemonstratethatruminationisassociatedwithsomedysregulated behaviors,bothcrossbsectionallyusingstructuralequationmodeling,andtemporally usingatwotimebpointmethod.

10 CHAPTER:INTRODUCTION I vealwaysfeltthesethings.idon tthinkthereareanywordsthatdescribethem exactly,buttheyareacombinationofrage,anger,extremepain.theymix togetherintowhaticallthefury Iamstartingtolearnhowtodealwithit,but untilrecently,theonlywayiknewwasthroughdrinkinganddrugs.itook something,whateveritwas,andifitookenoughofit,thefurywouldsubside. Theproblemwasthatitwouldalwayscomeback,usuallystronger,andthat wouldrequiremoreandstrongersubstancestokillit,andthatwasalwaysthe goal,tokillit. BJamesFrey,AMillionLittlePieces(p.272) Dowereallyhavecontroloverouremotions,ordoouremotionshavecontrol overus?perhapsasynthesisofthetwosuppositionsismoreaccuratethaneither alone.emotionregulationisdefinedastheextrinsicandintrinsicprocessesresponsible formonitoring,evaluating,andmodifyingemotionalreactions,especiallytheirintensive andtemporalfeatures,toaccomplishone sgoal(thomson,994) inshort,emotion regulationishowyoumanageandalteryouremotionssothattheyareconsistentwith yourobjectives.gross(998)hasproposedamodelofemotionregulationthat indicatesthatbothcognitiveandbehavioralstrategiesmaybeusedtoregulate emotions,eitherbeforeorafteranemotionoccurs.bothcognitiveandbehavioral emotionregulationstrategieshavereceivedattentionseparately,buttherehavebeen fewstudiesexaminingbothformstogether especiallyinthecaseofmaladaptive emotionregulation.forexample,cognitiveemotionregulationstrategiessuchas rumination(nolenbhoeksema&morrow,99)andthoughtsuppression(wegneretal., 987)havebeenlinkedtoanumberofnegativepsychologicaloutcomes.Recent evidenceisalsobeginningtoindicatethatcertainbehaviorssuchasnonbsuicidalselfb injury(chapmanetal.,2006),bingebeating(wegneretal.,2002),andotherimpulsive behaviors(whiteside&lynam,200)mayallbearesultofemotiondysregulation,and

11 theymayserveasemotionregulatoryfunctionsaswell.thequestionremains, however:whydoesemotiondysregulationappeartoresultinbehavioraldysregulation? Theconnectionmaylayintheuseofcertaincognitiveemotionregulationstrategies (cognitiveemotiondysregulation)thatactuallyincreasetheintensityofnegative emotionsandcauseanindividualtoengageinmaladaptivebehavioralemotion regulationstrategies(behavioraldysregulation)inordertodownbregulatetheseintense emotions.inessence,thewayweregulateouremotionsmayactuallycauseustolose controlofthem. Inordertounderstandtheconnectionbetweenemotionalandbehavioral dysregulation,itisimportanttoknowwhichmaladaptivebehaviorsaretheorizedto resultfromemotionregulation,aswellascurrenttheoriesofwhytheyhappen.perhaps themostvividexampleofdysregulatedbehaviorthathasbeensuggestedtohave emotionregulatoryfunctionsisnonbsuicidalselfbinjury(nssi),thedeliberateinflictionof injuryupononeselfwithoutsuicidalintent.nockandprinstein(2004)examinedthe functionalaspectsofnssiandidentifiedmultiplefunctionsforthisbehavior,with avoidanceofemotionalexperiencebeingamongthemostfrequentreasonsfor engaginginnssi.nssihasalsobeenindicatedasamethodwithwhichindividuals withborderlinepersonalitydisorder(bpd)regulatenegativeaffectandrelievetension (Brown,Comtois,&Linehan,2002).Althoughconclusiveevidenceislackingforhow NSSIregulatesaffect,thereareanumberoftheoriesonhowNSSImayreduce negativeaffect.linehan(993)hasproposedthatindividualswithbpdengageinselfb harmingbehaviorasaresultofemotiondysregulation,whichcausesintenseemotional states.chapmanetal.(2006)havesuggestedthatdeliberateselfharmservesthe purposeofhelpinganindividualavoidtheexperienceofnegativeemotion. Anotherbehaviorthathasreceivedattentionbecauseofitsrelationtonegative affectisbingebeating.heathertonandbaumiester(99)haveproposedamodelof bingebeatingthatsuggestsaffectregulatingproperties;theysuggestthatanindividual whoengagesinbingebeatingusesthisbehaviortoavoidnegativeemotionsby narrowingtheirattentionawayfromnegativeselfbawarenessandfocusingonthe concretephysicalstimuliassociatedwitheating.thereissignificantempiricalsupport forthismodelofbingebeating(seepolivy&herman,993,forareviewofthisliterature)

12 andnegativemoodinductionsinbingebeatingwomenhavebeenshowntoleadto eatingbingesandasubsequentreductioninnegativeemotionalarousalintwoseparate laboratoryexperiments(agras&telch,998;telch&agras,996). Reassuranceseekingisasocialbehaviorthathasbeenfoundtobeproblematic indepressedindividuals(joiner&schmidt,998).thisbehaviorisdescribedbycoyne (976)andJoinerandcolleagues(999)asoneinwhichdysphoricindividualswillseek reassurancefromothersinordertoalleviatetheirdoubtsaboutthemselvesandreceive comfortandcarefromothers.yettheindividualoftenperceivesthisreassuranceas insincere,whichleadstheindividualtoseekmorereassurance.althoughithasnot beenstudiedinthecontextofemotionregulation,reassuranceseekingappearstobe anaffectinfluencingbehavior.depressedindividualsmayseekreassurancewhenever theyareexperiencingdepressiveaffect,andthisbehaviormaydecreasetheirlevelsof negativeaffectforashorttime. Thebehaviorsdiscussedabove,andothers,areoftenconsidered impulsive behaviors,withoutpremeditation.yet,recentadvancesintheunderstandingof impulsivebehaviorssuggestthatratherthanallimpulsivebehaviorsresultingfromthe sameunderlyingproblem,theremayactuallybedifferentunderlyingproblemsthat resultinspecificimpulsivebehaviors.whitesideandlynam(200)haveproposedthat therearefourreasonsforengaginginimpulsivebehaviors:sensationseeking,lackof premeditation,lackofperseveranceandurgency.urgency,themostrelevantfactorfor thispaper,isfeelingtheneedtoactwhenfacedwithemotionaldistress.traiturgency hasbeenfoundtobeafactorinvolvedinbulimia(claes,vanderereycken,& Vertommen,2005),alcoholabuse(Whiteside&Lynam,2003)andborderline personalitydisorder(whiteside,lynam,miller,&reynolds,2005).whilenota behavioralemotionregulationstrategyperse,urgencymaybepartofwhatcauses certainindividualstoengageinbehavioraldysregulation.individualswhoexhibithigh levelsofurgencymaybemorelikelytoengageinmaladaptivebehaviorssuchas recklessdriving,impulsiveshopping,andsubstanceabuseasaresultofemotion dysregulation.althoughurgencyisconsideredapersonalityfeaturewithpersistent qualities,itisalsopossiblethatindividualsmayfluctuateinlevelsoftheirpropensityto engageinimpulsivebehaviorwhenfacedwithnegativeaffect.

13 Cognitiveemotionregulationstrategies,unlikebehavioralemotionregulation strategies,havebeenstudiedfrequently.perhapsthebestcharacterizedcognitive emotionregulationstrategyisrumination.rumination(nolenbhoeksema,99)isthe tendencytorepetitivelythinkaboutthecauses,situationalfactors,andconsequencesof one semotionalexperience inotherwords,ruminationiswhenanindividual repetitivelyfocusestheirattentiononemotionallyrelevantstimuli.experimental ruminationinductionshavedemonstratedthatruminationcausesdeteriorationinmood indepressedpatients(donaldson&lam,2004).studieshaveindicatedthatincreases inemotionalarousalandintensitynarrowattention,sothatemotionbrelevantstimuli becomemoresalientandaremorecloselyattendedto(easterbrook,959;bahrick, Fitts,&Rankin,952;Bursill,958;Callaway&Stone,960;Cornsweet,969; McNamara&Fisch,964).Likewise,theuseofruminationasanemotionregulation strategyhasbeenfoundtomagnifyandperpetuatenegativeaffect.experimentalanger ruminationinductionshavedemonstratedthatruminationonangerepisodesincreased theintensityoftheangerexperience(rusting&nolenbhoeksema,998).studiesin affectiveneurosciencehavealsosupportedthetendencyofruminationtoincrease negativeaffect.rayandcolleagues(2005)foundthatincreasesinruminationon negativeaffectcorrelatedwithincreasedactivationoftheleftventrolateralprefrontal cortexandleftamygdaladuringaninducedruminationprocedure;bothoftheseneural structureshavebeenshowntoactivateduringtheexperienceofintensenegativeaffect (Phanetal.,2003).Researchalsosuggeststhatruminationisanimportantriskfactor forbothbulimicsymptomsandsubstanceabuse.nolenbhoeksema&harrell(2002) foundthatpeople(especiallywomen)whohavehigherlevelsofruminationweremore likelytoreportdrinkingasawaytocopewithdistressaswellasmoreproblematic substanceusesymptoms.inaddition,arecentstudyoffemaleadolescentswhowere assessedatfiveconsecutive,annualtimesdemonstratedthatgirlswithhighinitial ruminationscoresshowedsubsequentincreasesinbulimicandsubstanceabuse symptomsandweremorelikelytodevelopbingebeatingoverthecourseofthestudy (NolenBHoeksema,Stice,Wade,&Bohon,2007).Theyalsofoundthattheexperience ofbulimicsymptomsincreasedthetendencytoruminate;thiswasnottruefor substanceabusesymptoms,however.

14 Thoughtsuppressionisanotheremotionregulationstrategythathasreceiveda greatdealofattention.cheavensetal.(2005)examinedtheroleofthought suppressioninbpd.thoughtsuppressionreferstodeliberateattemptstoreducethe frequencyorintensityofunpleasantcognitions,andthisphenomenonhasbeenlinked toavarietyofnegativepsychologicalconsequencesinanumberofstudies(e.g., Purdon,999;Wegner,Schneider,Carter,&White,987).Theyfoundthatthought suppressionfullymediatedtherelationshipbetweennegativeaffectintensity/reactivity andbpdfeatures.inasimilarstudyrosenthalandcolleagues(2005)replicatedthis finding.metabanalysessuggestthatdeliberateattemptstosuppressspecificthoughts mayhaveaparadoxical rebound effectwherethefrequencyoftheunwantedthought increasesfollowingeffortstosuppressit(abramowitz,tolin,&street,200;wenzlaff& Wegner,2000).Thusanindividualmayusethoughtsuppressioninanattempttostop ruminatingonnegativeaffect,butindoingsoruminatemore. Anothercognitiveemotionregulationstrategy,catastrophizing,maybeaformof cognitiveemotiondysregulation.catastrophizingisacognitiveemotionregulation strategythatisrelativelynewandhasnotreceivedmuchattentioninresearch. Catastrophizing(Garnefski,Kraaij&Spinhoven,200)isthetendencytocontinuously thinkabouthowbadasituationisandthenegativeeffectsthatthecurrentsituationhas onthefuture;thisappearstoberelatedtothefocusofthoughtsontheconsequences ofasituationthatnolenbhoeksema(99)hasdescribedinherdefinitionofrumination. Usingcatastrophizingasanemotionregulationstrategyhasbeenfoundtoincrease emotionaldistress(sullivan,bishop,&pivik,995).thus,catastrophizingappearsto beaspecificformofruminationakintoworry.worryitselfhasactuallybeensuggested tobeaspecificformofruminationinwhichthefocusofattentionisonthethoughtsand emotionsrelevanttothefutureconsequencesofanevent(watkinsetal.,2005).itmay bedifficulttodeterminewhethercatastrophizingisanattributionalstyleoranemotion regulationstrategy.inrealityitmaybeboth,anappraisalstylewithruminative tendencies.moreresearchneedstobedoneinordertorefinewhatareemotion regulationstrategies,andwhichonesaredysfunctional. Allofthecognitiveemotionstrategiesdiscussed(rumination,thought suppression,andcatastrophizing)appeartohaveacommontheme:theyallfocus

15 attentiononemotionallyrelevantstimuli,usuallynegative.furthermore,evidencehas shownthatruminativeprocessestendtoamplifytheeffectofnegativeaffect.cognitive emotiondysregulationmaythenbearesultoftheintenseuseofrumination, catastrophizing,andthoughtsuppressionwhenupset.yetthetendencytoruminateon negativeemotionalthoughtsincreaseslevelsofnegativeaffect,andinturntheincrease innegativeaffectincreaseslevelsofrumination.researchthussuggeststhat ruminationatintenselevelsmayresultinanextremelyhighlevelofnegativeaffect, whereminimalnegativeemotionalstimuliarefollowedbyafloodofracingnegative emotionalthoughts,whichinturnincreaselevelsofnegativeaffectinavicious, repetitivecycle anemotionalcascade.then,inorderto breakbup thispositive feedbackloop,anindividualmayengageinabehaviorthatdistractshim/herfrom emotionalthoughts.thesebehaviorsmayinhibitthiscyclebyallowinganindividualto focusonthealternatephysicalandemotionalstimuliassociatedwiththebehavior,such astasteorchewinginbingebeating,thephysicalpainandsightofbloodinnonbsuicidal selfbinjury,orthepositivewordsofanotherindividualinthecaseofexcessive reassuranceseeking.whenanindividualengagesinamaladaptivebehavioran opponentbprocess(solomon,980)maytakeplaceinwhichnegativeaffectdecreases andpositiveaffect,mostlikelyrelief,increases.individualsmayalsofeelthatthe behaviortheyhaveengagedinisaformofproblemsolving,whichmayincrease positiveaffect.theresultsofengaginginoneofthesebehaviorsareeffectivein alteringaffect,thoughtheeffectsmayonlylastforashorttime whichexplainswhy manyofthesebehaviorsmaybecomehabitual.followingthebehaviortheindividual maynotexperienceanotherruminationcycleuntillater,ortheymaybeginanothercycle resultingfromshameorguiltforengaginginthebehavior. Thisproposedmodelisconsistentwithprevioustheoriesofbehavioral dysregulationputforthbyheathertonandbaumeister(99),chapmanetal.(2006), andlinehan(993).itisalsoconsistentwiththefindingsofticeandcolleagues (200),whofoundthatinducedemotionaldistressincreasesengagementinvarious impulsivebehaviors,andfurthermoretheseeffectsdisappearedwhenindividualswere ledtobelievethatthesebehaviorswouldhavenoeffectontheirmood.additional supportforthismodelcomesfromthefindingsofbushmanetal.(200)andbushman

16 (2002),whofoundthatpeoplebelievethataggressivebehaviorshaveemotion regulatoryfunctionsinthattheyhelpventangeranddecreasenegativeaffect. Furthermore,Bushmanetal.(2005)demonstratedthatruminatingaboutaprovocation increasesthelikelihoodthatevenaminortriggeringeventwillincreasedisplaced aggression.thisevidencethatruminationincreasesaggressivebehavior,evenaftera relativelyminorincitingevent,providessupportforthemodelofanemotionalcascade, wheretheseaggressivebehaviorsserveasanattemptatdistractionfromruminationon negativeaffect. Thecurrentstudyhasbeendesignedtoexaminetheinfluenceofcognitive emotiondysregulationonbehavioraldysregulationusingtwostudies.instudyone, StructuralEquationModeling(SEM)willbeusedtotestamodelwherethelatent variableof CognitiveEmotionDysregulation willbeusedtopredictthelatentvariable of BehavioralDysregulation. InStudyTwo,atwotimeBpointmethodwillbeusedto examineifchangesinthelevelsofcognitiveemotiondysregulationpredictchangesin thelevelsofbehavioraldysregulation.thiswillbedoneusingregressionanalyseswith thestandardizedresidualsofthepredictorandoutcomevariables.

17 Participants STUDYONE Participantswere283introductorypsychologystudentsattheFloridaStateUniversity. Allparticipantssignedinformedconsentformsandthestudywasapprovedbythe FloridaStateUniversityIRB.Thedemographicsofthissampleconsistedof28%male, 72%female,7.8%Caucasian,3.4%AfricanAmerican,2.5%Asian,9%Hispanic,and 3.3%other.Theaverageageoftheparticipantswas8.6(SD=2.36).Accordingto Kline(2005,p.5),asampleof283participantsisconsidereda large sample,which isdesirableforstructuralequationmodelsofmoderatecomplexity. Measures EmotionDysregulationVariables (CERQ;Garnefskietal.,200).Thisscaleassessestheuseofseveral cognitiveemotionregulationstrategiesthatanindividualmayusewhenexperiencing negativeaffect.thereareanumberofsubscalesonthecerq,thoughonlythe ruminationandcatastrophizingsubscaleswillbeused.theruminationsubscale measuresanindividual stendencytofocustheirattentiononthefeelingsandthoughts associatedwithanegativeevent,anditconsistsofquestionssuchas, Iam preoccupiedwithwhatithinkandfeelaboutwhatihaveexperienced. The Catastrophizingsubscalemeasuresthetendencyofanindividualtofocustheirattention onthenegativeconsequencesthataneventhascaused,aswellasthefuturenegative implicationsofthatevent.thecatastrophizingsubscaleconsistsofquestionssuchas, IkeepthinkingabouthowterribleitiswhatIhaveexperienced. Eachquestionisrated ona5bpointlikertscale.theruminationandcatastrophizingsubscalesofthecerq havebeenshowntohaveacorrelationof.65(garnefskietal.,200),whichsuggests

18 thattheybothprovideameasureofcommonruminativetendencies.previousstudies havedemonstratedthateachofthesubscalesofthecerqhasadequateinternal consistencywithαbetween.68and.83.testbretestvaluesrangefrom.4to.59forthe subscales.inthissamplethecronbach salphasfortheruminationand Catastrophizingsubscaleswere.64and.77,respectively..(ARS;Sukhodolskyetal.,200).TheARSmeasuresthe tendencytothinkaboutangerbprovokingsituations,torecallangerepisodesfromthe past,andtothinkaboutthecausesandconsequencesofangerepisodes.thescale consistsof9itemsratedona4bpointlikertbtypescale.thearsiscomposedoffour subscales:angryafterthoughts,thoughtsofrevenge,angrymemories,and UnderstandingofCauses.TheAngryAfterthoughtssubscalepertainstothetendency toruminateonangerafteranangerexperience,andconsistsofsuchitemsas: WheneverIexperienceanger,Ikeepthinkingaboutitforawhile. TheThoughtsof Revengesubscaleassessesthetendencyofanindividualtofocusonthoughtsand feelingsofrevengeandconsistsofitemssuchas: Ihavelonglivingfantasiesof revengeaftertheconflictisover, and WhensomeonemakesmeangryIcan tstop thinkingabouthowtogetbackatthisperson. TheAngryMemoriessubscaleassesses thetendencytorecallmemoriesofpreviousangerepisodesandconsistsofsuchitems as: Ithinkaboutcertaineventsfromalongtimeagoandtheystillmakemeangry. TheUnderstandingofCausessubscalepertainstothetendencytotrytounderstand one sangerexperiences,andconsistsofsuchitemsas: Ianalyzeeventsthatmakeme angry, and Ithinkaboutthereasonspeopletreatmebadly. Theauthorsreporta onebmonthtestbretestreliabilityof0.77andaninternalconsistencyofα=0.93forthe scaleasawhole(separatereliabilitycoefficientsforthefourarssubscaleswere, angryafterthoughts.86,thoughtsofrevenge,.72,angrymemories.85and understandingcauses,.77).inthissample,thecronbach salphasfortheangry Afterthoughts,ThoughtsofRevenge,AngryMemoriesandUnderstandingofCauses subscaleswere.83,.65,.84,and.74,respectively.

19 BehavioralDysregulationVariables (DMQ;Cooperetal.992)isaselfBreportmeasurethat consistsofthreedimensions copingmotives,enhancementmotives,andsocial motivesbeachofwhichmeasuresaparticularmotivationforconsumingalcohol.inthis studyonlythedrinkingtocopesubscalewasusedasameasureofbehavioral dysregulationbecausethissubscalemeasuresthetendencyofanindividualtodrink alcoholinresponsetonegativeaffect.drinkingalcoholmayserveasadistractionfrom cognitiveemotiondysregulationinthatanindividualcanshiftattentionfromnegative affecttothephysicalandmentalsensationsthatthealcoholproduces.eachdimension ofdrinkingismeasuredwithfivequestionsandtheindividualtestitemsutilizealikert styleformatrangingfrom(almostnever/never)to4(almostalways).thecronbach s alphaforthedrinkingtocopesubscaleinthissamplewas.85.!!" (DIRIBRS;Joiner,Alfano,&Metalsky,992)isafourBitemscale(usinga7BpointLikert scale)thatmeasuresthedegreetowhichindividualsseekreassurancefromothersina mannerconsistentwithcoyne s(976)interpersonaldescriptionofdepression.this scalewaschosenasameasureofbehavioraldysregulationbecauseindividualswho excessivelyseekoutothersforreassurancemaydosoinanefforttodistract themselvesfromruminativeprocesses.positivefeedbackfromothersmayprovide individualswithenoughpositiveaffecttodistractthemanddecreasearuminativecycle. Inthissample,theCronbach salphaforthediribrswas.88.!"(edi;garneretal,983).theediisaselfbreport questionnaireconsistingof64itemsusedtoassesspathologicaleatingcognitionsand behaviors.themeasurehaseightsubscales:driveforthinness,bulimia, InterpersonalDistrust,InteroceptiveAwareness,Perfectionism,MaturityFears,Body Dissatisfaction,andIneffectiveness.TheBulimiasubscalewasoneofthebehavioral dysregulationoutcomevariablesinthisstudybecauseresearchsuggeststhatbingeb eatingisoftenaresponsetonegativeemotionalstimuli(heatherton&baumeister, 99;Wegneretal.,2002).BingeBeatingmayserveasadistractionfromcognitive

20 emotiondysregulationbecauseitprovidesanindividualwithphysicalandtaste sensationsthatanindividualcanshiftattentionto,andawayfromnegativeaffect. IndividualitemsuseaLikertscale(=stronglyagree5=stronglydisagree)andthe internalvalidityofthemeasurehasbeenwidelyreported.additionally,discriminant validityforbulimianervosaandanorexianervosadiagnoseshasbeenreported (Garneretal.,983).ItemsontheBulimiasubscaleexaminethedegreetowhich individualsexperiencealossofcontrolwhileeatinglargequantitiesoffoodandthen subsequentlypurge(e.g. IhavegoneoneatingbingeswhereIhavefeltthatIcouldnot stop. ).TheCronbach salphafortheedibbulimiasubscaleinthissamplewas.84. # "$%&'($%&'($!)(UPPS;Whiteside&Lynam,200).Thisisa45BitemselfB responsescalethatfeaturesfoursubcategories:urgency,sensationseeking,(lackof) Premeditation,and(lackof)Perseverance.TheUrgencysubscaleconsistsoftwelve itemsmeasuringthedegreetowhichindividualsactimpulsivelyinthefaceofnegative affect(e.g., IoftenmakemattersworsebecauseIactwithoutthinkingwhenIam upset. ),eachofwhichusesalikerttypescalerangingfrom Nottrueofme to5 Verytrueofme. Thisscalewasusedasameasureofbehavioraldysregulation becausewhenanindividualiscaughtinacycleofcognitiveemotiondysregulationthey mayengageinactivitiessuchasrecklessdrivingorimpulsiveshopping,bothofwhich providealternativestimuliforanindividualtofocusonratherthannegativeaffect.the Cronbach salphafortheurgencysubscaleinthissamplewas.87. ControlVariables )!"!!(BDIBII;Beck,Steer,&Garbin,988).TheBDIisaselfB reportmeasurethatconsistsof2itemsusedtoassessdepressivesymptoms. ParticipantsuseaLikerttypescale(0B3)toreportthedegreetowhichthedifferent itemsdescribetheiraffectivestateoverthecourseofthepasttwoweeks.thereliability andstabilityofthebdihavebeenreviewedextensively(beck,steer,&garbin,988; Becketal.,996).TheCronbach salphaforthebdiinthissamplewas.89.thisscale

21 waschosenasacovariateinordertoshowthatindividualswhoengageinbehavioral dysregulationarenotdoingsoonlybecausetheyaredepressed. )*"!"(BAI;Beck,Epstein,Brown,&Steer,988).TheBAIisaselfB reportmeasurethatconsistsof2items.eachitemusesalikertscale(0b3)with whichtheparticipantindicatestowhatdegreeparticularsymptomsofanxietyhave appliedtothemoverthecourseofthepasttwoweeks.themeasureshowsimpressive testbretestreliabilityandextensiveinformationregardingthevalidityofthemeasurehas beenpublishedbytheauthors.thecronbach salphaforthebaiinthissamplewas.90.thisscalewaschosenasacovariateinordertoshowthatindividualswhoengage inbehavioraldysregulationarenotdoingsoonlybecausetheyarefeelinganxious. ( (CERQ;Garnefskietal.,200).Additionalsubscales(asidefromtheRuminationand Catastrophizingsubscales)wereusedintheanalysesascontrolvariables.The RefocusonPlanningsubscalereferstothinkingaboutthestepstotakeandhowto handlethenegativesituation,andconsistsofquestionssuchlike, Ithinkabouthowto changethesituation. ThePositiveRefocusingsubscalemeasuresanindividual s tendencytothinkaboutseparatepleasantorjoyfulissuesratherthanthenegative event,andconsistsofquestionssuchas, Ithinkaboutsomethingniceinsteadofwhat hashappened. ThePositiveReappraisalsubscalemeasure sanindividual stendency tothinkaboutthepositiveaspectsofasituation,orhowtheycangrowfromwhat they veexperienced.itconsistsofquestionslike, Ithinkthatthesituationhasits positivesides. ThePuttingintoPerspectivesubscalemeasuresanindividual s tendencytoexamineanegativesituationwitharelativesense,andtoplaydownthe situationincomparisontoothersituations.itconsistsofitemssuchas. Ithinkthatit hasn tbeentoobadcomparedtootherthings. Previousstudieshavedemonstrated thateachofthesubscalesofthecerqhasadequateinternalconsistencywithα between.68and.83.testbretestvaluesrangefrom.4to.59forthesubscales.inthis samplethecronbach salphasforthescalesarelistedintable2.intheanalyses, thesefoursubscaleswereusedtocreatealatentvariableofadaptiveemotion

22 dysregulation,whichwasthenusedasacontrolvariableinthesemanalyses.afinal positivesubscale,acceptance,wasnotusedinthecreationofthepositiveemotion dysregulationlatentvariablebecauseofthewordingofitsitemshavingapotential hopeless naturetothem,whichcallsintoquestionwhetheritisapositiveemotion regulationstrategy.theacceptancesubscalealsohadmoderatepositivecorrelations withtherumination,angerruminationandcatastrophizingsubscales(seetable2), whichfurtherindicatesthatitshouldnotbegroupedwiththeotheradaptiveemotion regulationstrategies. Procedure Allparticipantswerepresentedwithaninformedconsentsheet,thecontentsof whichwereexplainedbyatrainedresearchassistant.thisassistantalsoanswered anyquestionsthattheparticipantshadbeforesigningtheinformedconsentsheet.the participantswerethengivenabatteryofquestionnaires,includingthemeasuresusedin thisstudy.uponcompletionofthesequestionnaires,theparticipantsweredebriefed andgivencoursecreditfortheirparticipation.thedatafromthesequestionnaireswere thenenteredintoanspssfilebytrainedresearchassistants.thisfilewasthen checkedbytheprimaryinvestigatorandcleanedasneeded.therewereno participantswhoweremissinglargeportionsofdata,sonoparticipantswereexcluded. Anymissingdatapointsthatwerefoundwerereplacedwiththeseriesmeanforthat question. DataAnalyticStrategy ThedataforStudyOnewereanalyzedusingStructuralEquationModeling (SEM)techniques.SEMevaluatestheplausibilityofamodelproposedaboutthe relationshipsamongasetofvariables,usuallyincludingbothobserved(ormeasured) variablesandunobserved(orlatent)variables(coovertetal.,990),aswellas modelingerrorvariance.thisstatisticalmethodhasadvantagesoverothertechniques usedtoanalyzetheoreticalrelationshipsbecauseitreliesonseveralindicators,rather

23 thanasinglemeasurementinstrument,toassessaconstructofinterestanditallows onetosimultaneouslyassessmeasurementmodels(orfactorloadings)oflatent variablesandrelationships(orcorrelations)betweenthelatentvariables.thisreduces measurementerrorandincreasesconstructvalidity.semanalyseswereconducted withthestatisticalprogramamos(arbuckle&wothke,999). Thecorrelations,means,standarddeviations,andalphaforthevariablesusedinStudy arepresentedintable.becausesemcanbesensitivetononbnormalvariable distributions,univariateanalysesofnormalitywereconducted.anassessmentof univariatenormality(usingaskewnessandkurtosisindexof+orb2inspss)revealed thatnoneofthevariablesweresignificantlyskewed,butthattwovariables,bdi (kurtosis=3.05)andedibbulimia(kurtosis=2.25),weresignificantlyleptokurtic. SquareBroottransformationsimprovedthenormalityofthesevariables,andthey remainedinallsubsequentanalyses.becausegenderdifferenceshavebeenreported onvariablessuchasruminationandcatastrophizing(martin&dahlin,2005),aseriesof ANOVAswererun(usingaBonferroniBadjustedalphaof.004)toexamineifgender differencesexistedwithanyofthevariablesinthissample.theanovaanalyses indicatedthattherewasnosignificantgendereffectonanyofthevariablesusedinthe analyses. MeasurementModelAnalyses ThemodelthatwastestedisdisplayedinFigure,andthefactorloadingofeach latentvariableonitscorrespondingobservedvariablesaredisplayedintable2. Althoughtherumination,catastrophizing,andARSsubscaleswereoriginallygoingto beusedtocreateanexogenouslatentvariableof CognitiveEmotionDysregulation andcommonruminativetendencies,measurementanalysesofthislatentvariable indicatedthattwocorrelatedfactorsforruminationfitthedatamostaccurately.these factorsconsistedofageneralruminationcomponent,usingtheruminationand

24 Catastrophizingsubscales,andanAngerRuminationcomponent,consistingoftheARS subscales.inaddition,thismeasurementmodeldidnotfitthedatawelluntilthe ThoughtsofRevengesubscalewasremovedfromtheAngerRuminationcomponent. ThismaybebecausetheThoughtsofRevengesubscalemaybemorerelatedto increasingpositiveemotions,ashasbeenindicatedbyselby,anestis,andjoiner(in press),whosuggestedthatpeoplemaydaydreamorfantasizeaboutviolenceor revengetoincreasepositiveaffectinamaladaptiveway.thefinalmeasurementmodel forthecorrelatedruminationfactorsprovidedgoodfitforthedata(+ 2 =.67,df=3,p=.64, CFI>.99,RMSEA<.00).Therewasasignificantpositivecorrelationbetweenthetwo Ruminationfactors(r=.65,P<.00),whichwerethenusedtopredictaBehavioral Dysregulationlatentvariable. TheBehavioralDysregulationlatentvariablewasmeasuredbytheobserved variablesofthedrinkingtocope,edibbulimia,diribrs,andurgencysubscales. Althoughthesebehaviorsmayormaynotoccurtogether,itwashypothesizedthateach ofthesescalesmeasuresacommontendencytobehaveinamaladaptivebehavior whenfacedwithnegativeaffect.thereareotherbehaviors,suchasnssiorphysical aggression,whichwouldworkwellasobservedvariablesforbehavioraldysregulation, buttheseweretheonlymeasuresofbehavioraldysregulationavailableinthisdataset. Allofthesebehaviorsrepresentacommonindexofproblematicbehaviorwhen experiencingemotionaldistress.theyloadedontoonefactoradequately(x 2 =7.03, df=2,p=.03,cfi=.968,rmsea=.094),althoughreassuranceseeking(diribrs) appearedtohavetheweakestloadingontothisfactor,butwasleftonintheanalyses duetoitstheoreticalimportance. Anadditionallatentvariableof CurrentPsychologicalDistress wasusedasa controlvariableandconsistedofthebdiandbaiasobservedvariables.thiswas usedasacontrolvariabletodemonstratethattheeffectsofbehavioraldysregulation arenotprimarilyaresultofcurrent,generalpsychologicaldistress,butrathertheeffects ofcurrentpsychologicaldistressonbehavioraldysregulationaremediatedbygeneral Rumination(butnotAngerRumination).Inordertotestthismediationalrelationship,a secondsemwasconstructedwiththeeffectsofgeneralruminationonbehavioral DysregulationbeingmediatedbytheCurrentPsychologicalDistresslatentvariable.

25 Afinallatentvariable, AdaptiveEmotionRegulation wascreatedtouseasa controlvariableintheanalyses,andtodemonstratethattheeffectsofruminative tendenciesonbehavioraldysregulationwerenotduesolelytoadeficitofadaptive emotionregulationstrategies.thislatentvariableconsistedoftherefocuson Planning,RefocusonPositive,PositiveReappraisal,andPuttingintoPerspective subscalesofthecerq.inthecreationofthislatentvariabletherewasalsoa hypothesizedcorrelationbetweentheerrorvariancesofthepositivereappraisaland PuttinginPerspectivesubscalesoftheCERQ,becauseoftheirtheoreticaloverlap (thinkingaboutsomethingpositiveinthesituationversusexaminingthesituationina relativecontext),andtheirhighdegreeofcorrelation(r=.7).preliminarymeasurement analysesindicatedthatthislatentvariablefitthedataadequately(x 2 =3.73,df=, p=.054,cfi=.994,rmsea=.098),andthatthehypothesizederrorvariancecorrelation wassignificant(r=.378,p<.05) Withinthewholemodeltherewerehypothesizedcorrelationsexistingbetween AngerRumination,CurrentPsychologicalDistress,andAdaptiveEmotionRegulation. AdditionallytherewerealsoresidualpredictorsplacedonboththeBehavioral Dysregulation(R),GeneralRumination(R2),AngerRumination(R3),andAdaptive EmotionRegulation(R4)latentvariables.Thisisbecauseitwashypothesizedthat otherfactorsmaycontributetotheselatentvariablesotherthanthelatentvariables usedtopredictthem.directpathsfromcurrentpsychologicaldistresstoallofthe othervariableswereincludedduetotheeffectsthatthesesymptomshaveonemotion regulationprocesses.additionally,adirectpathwasdrawnfromgeneralruminationto AngerRumination.Thisisbecauseanendogenousvariablethatispredictedby anothervariable(asboththegeneralruminationandangerruminationfactorsare) cannotbecorrelatedwithanothervariableinsem.oneofthesetwovariablescanbe usedtodirectlypredicttheother,however.thus,itwashypothesizedthatgeneral RuminationwouldmostlikelyleadtoAngerRumination,ratherthantheotherway around. Therewerealsohypothesizedcorrelationsbetweentheerrortermsofthe Rumination(CERQ)observedvariable,theUnderstandingofCauses(ARS)observed variable,andtherefocusonplanningsubscale(cerq)observedvariable.thisis

26 becausethesesubscalesappeartohavea reflection aspecttotheminwhichthere appearstobeaproblemsolvingcomponenttotherumination,inadditiontoaninability todivertattentionfromemotionallyrelevantstimuli.treynorandcolleagues(2003) havesuggestedthattherearetwocomponentstorumination:reflectionandbrooding. Reflectionisatendencytotrytounderstandwhyoneisinanegativeemotionalstate; whereasbroodingisanimmersioninnegativeaffect.studieshavealsodemonstrated thatreflectionmaybemoreadaptivethanbrooding(treynoretal.,2003). Todeterminetheappropriatenessofthemodelthefirststepwastoexaminethe appropriatenessofallparameterestimatesandstandardserrors.theneachofthese parameterswasexaminedwiththecriticalratio(c.r.),whichiscalculatedbydividingthe parameterestimatebyitsstandarderror.ac.r.neededtobe>+.96inorderforthe parametertobeconsideredsignificant.inordertoevaluatetheoverallmodel,the maximumlikelihood(ml)+ 2 wasusedtoevaluatetheoverallmodel.otherfitindices usedincludedthecomparativefitindex(cfi),andtherootmeansquareerrorof approximation(rmsea).thecfiisanormedfitindexthatadjustsforthedegreesof freedom.thermseatakesintoaccounttheerrorofapproximationinthepopulation andevaluateshowwellthemodelwouldfitthepopulationcovariancematrixwith unknownbutoptimallychosenparametervalues(browne&cudeck,993).standard cutoffcriteriaforgoodfitwereusedtojudgethemodelasawhole,andconsistedofcfi valuesgreaterthan.95,andrmseavaluesoflessthan.06(hu&bentler,999).to testindividualparameterestimates,acutoffcriterionvalueforsignificancewillbesetat =.05.TocomparenonBnestedalternativemodels,theAICforeachalternativemodel wascompared,withthemodelhavingthelowestaicbeingtheonewiththebestfit. StructuralModelAnalyses SEManalysisoftheproposedmodel(Figure)indicatedthatthismodel exhibitedgoodfit,x 2 (74,N=283)=32.22,p<.00,CFI=.964,RMSEA=.05,AIC= AscanbeseeninTable2,allexogenousvariablesloadedhighlyontotheir endogenousvariable.standardizedregressionweightsforthestructuralmodelare presentedintable3.theeffectsofgeneralruminationsignificantlypredicted

27 BehavioralDysregulation(p<.00),evenaftercontrollingfortheeffectsofCurrent PsychologicalDistress(alsosignificant,p<.05)andadeficitinAdaptiveEmotion Regulation(whichalsosignificantlypredictedBehavioralDysregulation,p<.05).Anger RuminationdidnotsignificantlypredictBehavioralDysregulation,however(p>.05).The directpathfromgeneralruminationtoangerruminationwasalsosignificant(p<.0), whichsuggeststhatgeneralruminationtendenciesmayleadtoruminationonanger. AlthoughCurrentPsychologicalDistresshadasignificantdirecteffectonBehavioral Dysregulation,italsohadastrongindirecteffect(standardizedindirecteffect=.433), whichindicatesthattheeffectsofcurrentanxietyanddepressivesymptomsinfluence behavioraldysregulationbothdirectly,andthroughpathssuchasruminationanda deficitinadaptiveemotionregulation.therewerealsosignificantcorrelationsbetween theerrorvariancesofrefocusonplanningandrumination(r=.30,p<.00),refocus onplanningandunderstandingofcauses(r=.59,p<.05),andruminationand UnderstandingofCauses(r=.24,p<.00),butnotPuttingintoPerspectiveandPositive Reappraisal. Additionalmodelswerealsotestedtocompareoverallfit.Figure2displaysthe samemodelasfigure,withouttheadditionalofanadaptiveemotionregulation latentvariable.theaerlatentvariablewasremovedbecausealthoughitsfitwas adequateinthemeasurementmodel,itwasn tgoodfit soitwasimportanttoseehow themodelchangedwiththeremovalofthislatentvariable.thismodelalsofitthedata well,x 2 (37,N=283)=76.5,p<.00,CFI=.962,RMSEA=.062,AIC=34.5.This modeljustmissedthecriteriaforgoodfit,althoughthechibsquarevaluewassignificant reducedfromtheoriginalmodel(p<.00).allregressionpathsremainedsignificant, withtheexceptionofangerruminationonbehavioraldysregulation,whichwasnonb significant.anadditionalmodelwasexamined(figure3)totestthereverse mediationalanalysiswiththeeffectsofgeneralandangerruminationpredicting BehavioralDysregulationthroughamediationalpathwaythroughCurrentPsychological Distress(withoutAdaptiveEmotionRegulationincluded).Thismodelindidnotfitthe dataaswell,x 2 (38,N=283)=43.67,p<.00,CFI=.899,RMSEA=0.099,AIC= 99.67,andtheeffectsofCurrentPsychologicalDistressremainednonBsignificant.

28 Thisindicatesthattheruminationmediationmodelnotonlyfitthedatabetter,butwas alsomoreparsimoniousthanthealternatemediationalmodel. Inordertofindthemodelwiththebestfit,variousothermodelswereexamined. Themodelwiththebestfit,Figure4,consistedoftheoriginalmodelwiththeremovalof theadaptiveemotionregulationstrategiesandthereassuranceseekingscale(diri) asanindicatorfromthebehavioraldysregulationlatentvariable.thediriwasan indicatorthatwasacandidateforremovalbecauseofitspoorfitwiththebehavioral Dysregulationlatentvariableinthemeasurementmodelanalyses.Thismodelfitthe dataverywell,x 2 (28,N=283)=44.99,p<.05,CFI=.983,RMSEA=0.046,AIC= ThiswasasignificantdecreaseinbothchiBsquarevalue(p<.0)andAICvalue (decreaseofapproximately20units;amodelwithadecreaseinover0unitsis usuallyconsideredsignificantlybetterfit[burnham&anderson,2004). Discussion Usingstructuralequationmodeling,theresultsofStudysuggestthatthereisa relationshipbetweenruminationingeneral,angerrumination,anddysregulated behaviors.oneofthestrengthsofthisstudywasthatfourdysregulatedbehaviors (drinkingtocope,reassuranceseeking,bingebeatingbehaviors,andurgency), behaviorsthatmightseemcompletelyunrelated,fittogetherwellenoughtocreatea latentvariableofdysregulatedbehavior.thisfindinglendssomeevidencetosupport thetheorythatsomedysregulatedbehaviorsmayhaveacommonunderlying mechanism.anotherinterestingfindingofthisstudywasthatadeficitinadaptive emotionregulationstrategies,strategiesthatshouldreducenegativeaffectand increasepositiveaffect,wasalsoanimportantpredictorofbehavioraldysregulation. Thereweresomelimitationstothisstudy,however.Onepotentiallimitationwith thisstudyisthatthereisawholegamutofdysregulatedbehaviors,manyofwhichare relatedtonegativeaffect,thatwerenotexaminedinthisstudy.rather,onlyfourtypes ofdysregulatedbehaviorwereusedtocreatethelatentvariableofbehavioral Dysregulation.Thislimitationsuggeststhattheremaybeproblemswithgeneralizability tootherdysregulatedbehaviors,suchasnssi.itisimportanttoremember,however,

29 thatthesefourseeminglyunrelatedbehaviorsdidclustertogetherrelativelywell. AnotherimportantlimitationwiththisstudyisacrossBsectional,correlationalstudythat isunabletodetermineanycausaleffectsofemotionalcascadesonbehavioral dysregulation.thus,inordertoestablishatemporalrelationshipbetweenruminative processesandbehavioraldysregulation,althoughstillnotacausalone,study2was designedtoexamineifchangesinruminativeprocessespredictedchangesin dysregulatedbehaviors.

30 Participants STUDYTWO Participantsconsistedof65participants(82.9%female)fromStudyOne.The participantsinthisstudyweregiventhesamemeasuresasthoseinstudyone(with theexceptionofthears)onebmonthpriortoparticipationinstudyone.these individualswererecruitedthroughthefloridastateuniversity smassscreeningsystem basedonreportedimpulsivityproblems,usinghighscoresonscreeningquestionsfrom theimpulsivebehaviorscale(ibs;rosotto,yager,&rorty,998)astheselection factor.invitationtothestudywasbasedonananswerof4orhigher(onalikertscale of=never,5=frequently)onatleastthreeoftheibsscreeningquestions.theethnic compositionofthesamplewas77.%whiteorcaucasian,0.0%hispanicorlatino, 5.7%AfricanAmerican,2.9%AsianAmerican,and2.8%other.Theagerangeforthe samplewas7b53(mean=9.3,standarddeviation=4.23).aseriesofanova analyses(usingabonferonnicorrectedbvalueof.006)wereconductedonthe variablesofinteresttodetermineiftherewereanydifferencesonthemeasures betweentheparticipantsinstudytwoandthosewhoonlyparticipatedinstudyone. ThegroupusedinStudy2hadsignificantlyhigherscoresonurgency(F=9.70,df= 283,p<.006),andcatastrophizing(F=2.4,df=283,p<.006)thanthoseindividuals whoparticipatedonlyinstudyone.thesegroupdifferencesweremostlikelydueto therecruitmentofindividualswithreportedimpulsivityproblems. Measures CognitiveEmotionDysregulationBThisscalewascreatedbyaddingalloftheitemson theruminationandcatastrophizingsubscalesofthecognitiveemotionregulation Questionnaire(CERQ)tocreateanoverallmeasureofcognitiveemotiondysregulation processes.

31 EDIBTheCronbach salphafortheedibbulimiascalewas.8fortimeand.87for Time2. DMQBTheCronbach salphaforthedmqbcopingscalewas.87fortimeand.86for Time2. DIRIBTheCronbach salphaforthediribrswas.87fortimeand.9fortime2. UrgencyBTheCronbach salphafortheurgencysubscalewas.9fortimeand.89 fortime2. BDIBIIBTheCronbach salphaforthebdibiiwas.85fortimeand.89fortime2. BAIBTheCronbach salphaforthebaiwas.92fortimeand.9fortime2. DataAnalyticStrategy Becausepreviousstudiesindicatethattherearemoderatecorrelationsbetween ruminationandcatastrophizing,andbecauseofthesetwomeasureloadingwellonto thesamelatentvariableinstudy,theitemscomposingthesetwosubscaleswillbe combinedandusedasameasureofcognitiveemotiondysregulation.inorderto examinetherelationshipbetweenchangesincognitiveemotiondysregulationand changesinbehavioraldysregulation,aseriesofregressionanalyseswereconductedby creatingandsavingtheunstandardizedresidualsusingtimeofeachofthevariables topredictt2ofthecorrespondingvariable.residualizedchangescoresrepresentthe degreetowhichtimescorespredicttime2scores,andbyusingresidualizedscores intheregressionanalysesboththeamountofchangeandinitialscorearetakeninto account.theregressionanalyseswereconductedusingtheresidualizedchangesin cognitiveemotiondysregulationasthepredictor,andresidualizedchangescoresfor eachofthebehavioralvariablesastheoutcomevariables.inaddition,theresidualized

32 changescoresofthebdiandbaiwereenteredintotheregressionanalysesas covariatesasawaytoshowthatchangesinbehavioraldysregulationwerenotmerelya resultofchangesincurrentpsychologicaldistress.afinalanalysiswasconductedby creatingzbscoresforeachofthebehavioralvariables,andthenallfourofthebehavioral variableswereaddedtogethertocreateanoverallmeasureofbehavioraldysregulation forbothtimeandtime2.aregressionanalysiswasthenconductedwithresidualized cognitiveemotiondysregulationasapredictoroftheresidualizedcompositeof behavioraldysregulation,aftercontrollingforresidualizeddepressionandanxiety. Additionalregressionanalyseswerealsoconductedusingthetimevariablesto predictchangefromtimetotime2inordertoexaminetheeffectthatinitiallevelsof thevariableshadonthechanges. Means,standarddeviations,andalphaforTimepredictors,dependents,and covariates,aswellastheirintercorrelations,canbefoundintable4.means,standard deviations,andalphafortime2predictors,dependents,andcovariates,aswellastheir intercorrelations,canbefoundintable5below.intercorrelationsfortimeandtime 2variablescanbefoundinTable6below. TimemeasuresofallvariableswereregressedontotheircorrespondingTime2 variable,whiletheunstandardizedresidualsoftheseregressionanalysesweresaved. TheunstandardizedresidualsofthechangefromTimetoTime2werethenusedin thesubsequentanalyses.first,residualizedscoresforthebaiandbdiwereentered insteponeoftheregression,andtheresidualizedrumination/catastrophizingcomposite variablewasenteredinsteptwooftheequation.thesedependentvariableswerethen usedtopredictresidualizedscoresondrinkingtocope(dmqcope),reassurance Seeking(DIRI),bingeBeatingbehavior(EDIBBul),Urgency,andazBscoredcomposite variableofallofthesebehaviors.residualizedchangescoresintherumination variablesignificantlypredictedresidualizedchangeinurgency(table7;ß=.3,t=2.6,

33 p<.05),reassuranceseeking(table8;ß=.29,t=2.3,p<.05),andbingebeatingbehavior (Table9;ß=.38,t=3.,p<.05).Theonlyresidualizedoutcomevariablethatwasnot significantlypredictedbyresidualizedruminationwasdrinkingtocope(table0). FollowupanalysesontheDMQCopeindicatedthatruminationsignificantlypredicted DMQCopescoresatT(aftercontrollingforTBAIandBDIscores;ß=.28,t=2.2, p<.05),butnotatt2.finally,changesinruminationsignificantlypredictedchangesin thebehavioralcompositevariable(table;ß=.37,t=3.,p<.05),evenaftercontrolling forresidualizedbaiandbdiscores. AdditionalregressionanalyseswereconductedusingTvariablestopredict change(residualizedscores)intheoutcomevariables.theonlytvariableto significantlypredictaresidualizedoutcomevariablewastbdi,whichsignificantly predictedresidualizedurgency(ß=.33,t=2.2,p<.05),evenaftercontrollingfortbai andruminationscores. Discussion Usingatwotimepointmethod(withamonthbetweenmeasurements),Study2 demonstratedthattheremaybeatemporalrelationshipbetweenruminativeprocesses andreassuranceseeking,bingebeatingbehaviors,urgency,andacompositeofthese variables(alsoincludingdrinkingtocope).theonlybehaviorthatchangesin ruminationwerenotcorrelatedwithruminativeprocesseswasdrinkingtocope. Additionally,initiallevelsofruminativeprocessesdidnotpredictchangesinbehavioral dysregulation.thissuggeststhatcurrentlevelsofruminationdonotnecessarilypredict changeinbehavioraldysregulation,butratherthattimesofhighruminationmayresult inmorefrequentengagementindysregulatedbehaviorsduringthattime. Thefindingthatchangesinruminationwerenotrelatedtochangesindrinkingto copewasaninterestingfindingthatdidnotsupportthehypotheses.giventhat ruminationattwascorrelatedwithdrinkingtocopeatt(aswellasinstudy),but thattherewasnotasignificantcorrelationbetweenthet2variables,thissuggeststhat theremayhavebeenanunknownconfoundpresentatt2thatinterferedwiththis relationship.additionally,changesinruminationmaynothavebeenassociatedwith

34 changesindrinkingtocopebecausetheremaynothavebeenmuchchangeinlevelsof drinkingtocope.becausealcoholusehasmanyphysiologicaleffectsandcanresultin addictivebehavior,drinkingtocopemayhavebeenmorestableoverthecourseofa monththantheotherdysregulatedbehaviorsexaminedinstudy2.anadditional limitationwithstudy2includedthepassingofonlyamonthbetweenmeasurements, whichmaymeanthattherelationshipbetweenruminationanddysregulatedbehavior maynotgeneralizetolongerperiodsoftimesuchasmonthsoryears.afinallimitation withstudy2istherelativelysmallsamplesize,whichmaynothaveprovidedenough powertofindarelationshipbetweendrinkingtocopeandrumination.

35 GENERALDISCUSSION Thepurposeofthesestudieswastoexaminetherelationshipbetween ruminationanddysregulatedbehaviors,andindoingsodetermineifthereissome supportfortheemotionalcascademodel.usingtwodifferentstudieswewereableto demonstratethatruminationisassociatedwithsomedysregulatedbehaviors,both crossbsectionallyandtemporally.thefirststudysuccessfullyusedstructuralequation modelingtocreateastructuralmodelinwhichrumination(bothgeneralruminationand angerrumination)resultedinhigherfrequenciesofdysregulatedbehaviors,evenafter controllingforcurrentpsychologicaldistressandadeficitofadaptiveemotionregulation strategies.thisstudyalsoprovidedsupportforamediationalrelationshipwith ruminationmediatingtherelationshipbetweencurrentpsychologicaldistressand dysregulatedbehaviors.thesecondstudyusedatwotimepointmethod,withamonth inbetweenmeasurement,toshowthatchangesinruminationweretemporallyrelated tochangesindysregulatedbehaviors.theresultsofstudy2foundthatchangesin ruminationsignificantlypredictedchangesinreassuranceseeking,bingebeating behaviors,urgency,andacompositevariableofdysregulatedbehaviors,evenafter controllingforchangesindepressionandanxietysymptoms.althoughthesestudies cannotestablishacausalrelationshipbetweenruminationanddysregulatedbehaviors, duetotheircorrelationalnature,thesestudiesprovidesomesupportforanemotional cascademodelinwhichintenseruminationleadstodysregulatedbehaviorsand subsequentdistractionfromnegativeaffect. TheresultsofStudyareinterestinginthatnotonlydidruminationhavea significantrelationshiptobehavioraldysregulation,butsodidadeficitinadaptive emotionregulationstrategiessuchaspositivereappraisal,puttingintoperspective, refocusingonpositive,andrefocusingonplanning.thissignificantrelationship providesadditionalsupportfortheemotionalcascademodelofdysregulatedbehaviors, inthatindividualswhoengageinthesebehaviorsmaynotonlybeincreasingtheir negativeaffect(byruminating)priortoengaginginthebehavior,butadditionallythey mayhavetroubleusingpositiveemotionregulationstrategiestodownbregulated negativeaffect.thesedeficitsinadaptiveemotionregulationstrategiesmaybearesult

36 ofnotattemptingtousethem,orthesestrategiesmaybeineffectiveatinhibitingthe emotionalcascadeprocess. AnotherfindingofinterestfromStudywasthatruminationprovidedbetterfitto thedataastwocorrelatedfactors,oneforgeneralrumination(includingcatastrophizing) andanotherforangerrumination.thisfindingindicatesthatalthoughvarioustypesof ruminationmaysharesimilardysregulationproperties,suchasincreasingnegative affect,theyalsobesomewhatdifferentfromeachother.animportantexampleofthis differencewasthatgeneralruminationwasmorestronglyrelatedtotheexamined dysregulatedbehaviorsthanangerrumination,whichwassignificantinmanyanalyses untilgeneralruminationwasusedtopredictit.thismaybebecausetherewereno aggressivebehaviorsusedasindicatorsforthebehavioraldysregulationlatentvariable. Itseemslikelythattheinclusionofameasureofaggressioninthislatentvariablewould haveincreasedthestrengthoftherelationshipbetweenangerruminationandthe behavioraldysregulationlatentvariable.thisdifferenceinruminativeprocessesmay alsoindicatethatanemotionalcascadeonaspecificemotionmayleadtoamore specificbehavior,suchasanangercascadeleadingtobehaviorssuchasthreatsor physicalaggression,andasadnesscascadeleadingtomoreselfbdestructivebehaviors suchasbingebeatingbehaviorsornssi.itwasalsointerestingthatthethoughtsof RevengesubscaleoftheARSdidnotfitwellwiththeotherruminativeprocessesinthe measurementmodel.apotentialexplanationforthisisthatthisformofrumination increasespositiveaffect,ratherthannegativeaffect,althoughitmaydosoina maladaptiveway(selbyetal.,inpress).thisprovidesanewpotentialavenuefor ruminationresearch,mainlythatcertainformsofruminationmayactuallyincrease positiveaffect. ThefindingsofStudyandStudy2alsohaveimportantclinicalimplications.It maybeimportanttoassessthelevelofruminationthatindividualsdemonstratingthese behaviors.itseemslikelythatindividualswhoengageindysregulatedbehaviorswill reportexperiencinghighlevelsofruminationalongwiththesebehaviors,andproviding psychoeducationabouthowruminationactuallyincreasesnegativeaffectmayhelp reducetheemotionalintensitythatisexperiencedalongwiththesebehaviors.itmay alsobehelpfortreatmentsofthesebehaviorstoaddressadditionalwaystocopewith