The psychoactive chemical components of in Australia across all socio-economic groups.

Transcription

1 Key points Although the number of Australians consuming cannabis has fallen significantly, the drug is still the most widely used illicit drug The psychoactive chemical components of in Australia across all socio-economic groups. cannabis are called cannabinoids. Of the 6 During Australian law enforcement cannabinoids present in the cannabis plant, the seized kilograms of cannabis, an most powerful (containing hallucinogenic increase of kilograms from properties) is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, more Hydroponic cultivation of cannabis continues to be prevalent, with hydroponically-grown cannabis highly sought after by users. cultivation and distribution continue to be associated with organised crime. Large networks which cross jurisdictional boundaries commonly known as THC. This cannabinoid is concentrated in the flowering heads of the plants; lower levels are found in the leaves. Main forms Table 2. shows the main forms of cannabis. and traffic bulk quantities of cannabis and hydroponics equipment have been identified. Effects There are two different methods of using Description plants are grouped into two categories: hemp and marijuana. Hemp is fibrous and low in psychoactive components. Its roots, stalks and stems are used mostly to produce clothing, paper and skin care products. Marijuana describes a plant high in psychoactive components whose leaves, resin and oil are commonly used as a recreational drug. cannabis: smoking and ingestion. The different methods of using cannabis give rise to different patterns of absorption and metabolism. A large majority of cannabis users prefer to smoke the drug. When smoked, the level of THC in the blood reaches a peak quickly and then decreases to about five to 0 per cent of the initial level within an hour. With ingestion, a much less common route of administration, it takes one to three hours for the THC to enter the Many experts consider there are three species of bloodstream, delaying the onset of psychoactive cannabis: sativa, C. ruderalis and C. indica. effects. While the high from ingestion may be C. sativa is most common and the one usually used less intense, the period of intoxication is much for its psychoactive effects. C. indica also produces longer (up to several hours) because of the high levels of psychoactive components; it is digestive process (Martin & Cone 999). plentiful in the Middle East and India where it is used to produce hashish. C. ruderalis produces a low yield of psychoactive components, hence its use for drug production is limited. Among the psychological effects of THC are: impaired concentration and short-term memory; feeling calm, relaxed and talkative; enhanced sensory perception; and a distorted sense of time Australian Illicit Drug Report

2 The National Crime Authority assesses hydroponic cultivation is the most common method of cultivation for the domestic market. The proliferation of hydroponic equipment and space. Among the physical effects are impaired coordination and balance, increased distributors has been attributed to the prevalence of hydroponic cultivation in a number of states. appetite, rapid heartbeat, red eyes, dry mouth and throat, and drowsiness. Some users Hydroponic cultivation offers a number of experience hallucinations with larger doses. advantages to the cannabis grower including a Motor skills are particularly impaired if cannabis higher yield from fewer plants, a perception of a is used in combination with alcohol. Some users reduced risk of detection, and a greater sense of experience unpleasant psychological effects such security about the plants. The necessary as paranoia, panic, fearfulness and depression, information and equipment are readily available particularly when a larger than average quantity and hydroponic cultivation is virtually is consumed or the user is inexperienced. independent of seasonal factors. Hydroponic crops can vary in size and Sources sophistication from a small number of plants to Production in Australia large-scale production involving the conversion of residential homes, shipping containers or production occurs in many geographical commercial premises. New South Wales Police areas of Australia. Hydroponic cultivation is recently located an example of an elaborate dominant in a number of jurisdictions. hydroponic cannabis crop of 00 plants in the Table 2.: Main forms of cannabis (ABCI) Form Description Properties Method of administration Herbal cannabis The leaves and flowering heads Low levels of THC Smoked as a rolled cigarette or inhaled through a water pipe or bong resin (hashish) Made from the resinous material of the cannabis plant, dried and compressed into balls, blocks or sheets. Colour ranges from light brown to black Medium levels of THC Crumbled and smoked in a pipe, rolled into a cigarette with cannabis leaf or tobacco, or cooked with food and eaten, most notably as hash cookies oil A viscous oil extracted using a solvent such as acetone or methanol. Colour ranges from amber to dark brown High levels of THC Small amounts applied to cannabis or tobacco cigarettes; can also be heated and the vapour inhaled The term hydroponic cultivation includes intensive indoor cultivation involving the use of growing medium other than hydroponic solution. Australian Illicit Drug Report

3 Hunter Valley area. The plants were set up under a residential home with lighting attached to a track system that simulated sunlight patterns. The wiring was set up to ensure a constant flow of electricity to the site. Carbon dioxide gas was pumped into the room to assist plant growth, while exhaust fans and internal fans circulated the air. The water was re-circulated to eliminate waste. Numerous concealment methods, often varying in their sophistication, are employed to hide a perception of police focussing on hydroponic cultivation only more effective policing strategies over the summer/autumn period. Large outdoor cannabis crops were detected in a number of remote localities including Cape York blackened or covered windows of sheds or houses, in Queensland and southern Tasmania. However, no outdoor crops were reported to, or identified padlocked rooms, padlocked sheds, false walls by, Victoria Police. with access through cupboards, false walls in Outdoor crops differ in their level of sophistication. Complex solar-powered irrigation hydroponic cannabis crops. Techniques include sheds, and concealment in water tanks. Police have found security and surveillance systems at some hydroponic crops. In some cases in the far south coast area of New South Wales, door handles were electrified to stop entry. Although a number of states report that hydroponic cultivation is firmly entrenched, large-scale outdoor cultivation continues in a number of areas. South Australia Police report that as a result of the recent changes in legislation reducing the number of expiable cannabis plants to one there may be a shift away from hydroponic cultivation to outdoor cropping in that jurisdiction. South Australia Police report systems have been located at some remote crop sites. Queensland Police report a trend for growers to move away from crops with large numbers of plants to multiple and smaller crops scattered across a property. Tasmania Police report four commercial licences were issued during for the cultivation of Indian hemp. Fifteen trial outdoor crops totalling 45.5 hectares were grown and cultivated for both seed and fibre. The crop locations and growers were screened by Tasmania Police and regulated by the Department of Primary Industry, Water and Environment. that outdoor cannabis crop seizure figures for the Hydroponic equipment retailers first six months of 2002 are nearly double those There are growing links between hydroponic for the corresponding period in 200. They equipment suppliers and illicit cannabis hypothesise that the increase in outdoor crop production. South Australia Police report the seizures may be a result of factors including: involvement of some hydroponic equipment criminals moving away from hydroponics as a result of the legislative amendment in South Australia suppliers in cannabis production and interstate trafficking. A recent review by South Australia Police of the industry found many hydroponic suppliers were openly providing advice on cannabis production. Australian Illicit Drug Report

4 Border situation product seizures normally do not attract the publicity surrounding seizures of heroin, Electricity theft by growers cocaine or methylamphetamines. Typically, The theft of electricity is closely associated with cannabis seizures tend to be of small amounts the hydroponic cultivation of cannabis. This form found in posted parcels, air passengers clothing of cultivation requires a considerable amount of and baggage. The points of departure for electricity for the lights, irrigation systems and cannabis shipments to Australia are varied and air conditioning as they are used continually. include Afghanistan, North America, the United Some hydroponic growers will tamper with wiring Kingdom, Western Europe and Scandinavia, to circumvent electrical meters to avoid the high Southern Africa, Singapore, Cambodia and India. electricity costs. A number of police services collaborate with electricity providers to detect power theft and pursue drug investigations. During , Customs detected 772 attempted imports and exports of cannabis with a total weight of 2944 kilograms. This was a Tasmania Police report that as hydroponic significant increase on the total weight of cannabis cultivation increased in that jurisdiction, cannabis detected in of 70.8 kilograms. there has been a noticeable increase in the Of the 772 detections in , 678 were detection of electricity theft. Tasmania Police importations weighing a total of kilograms. reported a shipping container was buried under The remaining 94 detections were attempted a driveway with power diverted to a well cannabis exports weighing a total of 884. grams. established hydroponic system in the container. Methods of importation Production outside Australia The most frequently detected method of While cannabis is grown widely around the world, importation for cannabis in was through this has little impact on the Australian domestic the post, with 395 detections weighing a total of market. However, the amount of cannabis leaf six kilograms. Detection of cannabis from air and cannabis resin seized at or near the Australian passengers was the second most frequent, with Customs Service (Customs) border was greater 27 detections weighing a total of.9 kilograms. in than in the previous four years. It is Customs made five detections in both air and sea only eclipsed by the record 24.3 tonnes seized cargo with total weights of 62 grams and during kilograms respectively. Figure 2. shows cannabis The majority of the total amount seized in importation methods as a proportion of the total is accounted for by a single seizure of number of detections in kilograms of cannabis resin. Viewed in the The most common embarkation points for context of the past four reporting periods, it can imported cannabis detected in were the be considered atypical. United Kingdom (54), the United States (6) and the Netherlands (56). Consignments were Australian Illicit Drug Report

5 of small quantities and had a combined total weight of.3 kilograms. The most significant individual consignments by weight during came from Afghanistan, China, Switzerland and Cambodia. Figure 2.: : importation methods as a proportion of the number of detections, (Australian Customs Service) Table 2.2 provides details of embarkation points for cannabis importations of 00 grams or more. Smallcraft Importations of cannabis continue to be Sea Passengers concealed in a variety of ways. For example, Sea Cargo Customs officers detected cannabis between two postcards glued together, sewn into soft toys, in Air Cargo the edge of a hemp cloth frisbee, and concealed Air Passengers in the structure of bowls and vases covered with Post layers of lacquer and papier-mâché. Exports The most common method of attempted export was through the post. This accounted for 92 illicit drugs are detected, Customs transfers detections. The remaining two detections were responsibility for the ongoing investigation to the made from air passengers. A Customs detector Australian Federal Police. dog at the New South Wales international postal In August 200, Commonwealth law enforcement centre in Mascot detected the largest attempted made the largest detection of cannabis during export of cannabis 0 grams destined for : kilograms of cannabis resin built Vanuatu. into the floors of two sea cargo containers shipped The majority of cannabis export detections were from Afghanistan. This detection accounted for in New South Wales (64). There were 5 in 99.6 per cent of the total weight of all cannabis Queensland, in South Australia and four in detected by Commonwealth law enforcement at Western Australia. The United Kingdom was the the border in most common intended destination with 23 detections, followed by Ireland (9) and the United States (6). Distribution Large quantities of cannabis are distributed Significant detections throughout Australia using elaborate networks Customs and the Australian Federal Police work and sophisticated concealment techniques. At the closely together in their efforts to detect and seize consumer level, the overwhelming majority of the illicit drugs being imported or exported. When drug is sold in private residences, generally by social contacts. Australian Illicit Drug Report

6 highly sought after and often exchanged for locally produced methylamphetamine. South Australia Police identified a criminal Distribution centres syndicate utilising an Adelaide-based transport produced in South Australia is being company to distribute large quantities of transported interstate. Intelligence from New South cannabis. This investigation resulted in the Wales Police has identified hydroponic cannabis seizure of over 30 kilograms of cannabis and a grown in the Australian Capital Territory being number of arrests. transported to localities within New South Wales. Intelligence from New South Wales Police South Australian grown hydroponic cannabis is indicates that while cannabis is grown and often brokered through a single facilitator trafficked within New South Wales, the state also frequently for distribution throughout the nation. receives imported cannabis from interstate with South Australia Police report seizures of vacuum- South Australia frequently mentioned as a source. sealed cannabis packaged ready for interstate New South Wales Police has found cannabis a transport. Numerous means of transportation number of times in vehicles on the Sturt Highway have been utilised, including private vehicles, between the Victorian border and the central long-haul transport, postal services, and interstate western New South Wales city of Hay over recent bus and train services. Queensland-based former years. shipments from South Australia illicit drug users reported in interviews that South of between three and 0 kilograms have been Australian-produced hydroponic cannabis is found in the Albury area. grown in the Table 2.2: : country of embarkation for importations detected by Customs, by weight and number, (Australian Customs Service) Country Afghanistan Weight (grams) Number of detections China Switzerland Germany Cambodia India Singapore Italy 72.5 Turkey 2. Sweden 20.0 Canada United States Note: Excludes detections of less than 00 grams Australian Illicit Drug Report

7 Australian Capital Territory and South Australia has also been detected in the far south coast, Lake Illawarra and Canobolas areas of New South Wales. is reported to be obtained in bulk from South Australia and the Australian Price Capital Territory and shipped into the Lake The quality and type of cannabis remain the main Illawarra area by road and plane. determinants of price. Availability is rarely an issue. Another factor which influences the price Market indicators of cannabis is geographical location. Police jurisdictions report minor reductions in Availability both the wholesale and retail prices between remains widely available throughout reporting periods. New South Wales Police Australia, continuing a previously identified reported that cannabis pricing reflects its wide trend. Supply remains stable in the larger cities, availability and cannabis prices are substantially though there are regional fluctuations in the lower than for other illicit drugs. Prices also vary availability of certain types of cannabis due to within the state, particularly between urban and climatic conditions. Anecdotal reports from regional areas. The highest prices for cannabis cannabis users in Western Australia indicate it is in New South Wales were in The Hills district of generally easier to purchase cannabis in rural Sydney and the Wagga Wagga and Tuggerah areas than in Perth. Lakes areas. The lowest prices were in the Eastern South Australia Police report the re-emergence of Beaches areas of Sydney, Albury, Campbelltown hashish and hash oil. Recent seizures of large and throughout the southern region of the State. quantities of hash oil may indicate the commercial Prices of hydroponic cannabis ranged from $0 manufacture of the oil within the state. to $50 for an individual unit or deal (one to five Injecting drug users participating in the 2002 grams), while an ounce (approximately 28 grams) Illicit Drug Reporting System project reported of hydroponic cannabis can cost from $200 to cannabis availability as either easy or very easy $500. The 2002 Illicit Drug Reporting System in all jurisdictions (Breen, Degenhardt & project reported that the price of an ounce of Roxburgh 2002). cannabis ranged from $80 in South Australia to $300 in New South Wales (Breen, Degenhardt & users in a number of jurisdictions report Roxburgh 2002). According to Northern hydroponic cannabis as the most commonly used Territory Police, the price of larger amounts of and sought after variety. The flowering buds of cannabis fell during the reporting period. The hydroponic cannabis are preferred due to its high price of an ounce (approximately 28 grams) is concentration of THC. Users have little interest currently between $250 $300 while a pound in the other parts of the cannabis plant, (approximately 450 grams) costs $3000 $3500. commonly referred to as leaf and tip, and these Prices for cannabis in rural parts of Northern have almost disappeared from the marketplace. Territory are generally three times higher than Australian Illicit Drug Report

8 increased from to in an increase of approximately six per cent over the period. Queensland has recorded a significant rise in the number of cannabis offences. in major urban centres. A street deal (0.8 to.5 Improvements in the processing of illicit drug grams) of cannabis averages $25 in price in urban statistics in that jurisdiction is the probable cause areas but can sell for up to $75 in rural and for the increase. outlying communities. offence notices offences Three jurisdictions in Australia issue infringement offences encompasses arrests, notices for minor cannabis offences: South Expiation Notices in South Australia, Australia, Northern Territory, and the Australian Simple Offence Notices in the Capital Territory. Table 2.4 shows the number of Australian Capital Territory, and Drug infringement notices issued from to Infringement Notices in the Northern Territory A gradual decline is evident in the total In , cannabis offences were number of infringement notices issued over the recorded Australia-wide. These represent 72 per period. South Australia, the Northern Territory cent of all drug offences in Australia. and the Australian Capital Territory recorded a Table 2.3 shows the number of cannabis arrests reduction in the number of infringement notices from to The total number of issued between and , with a large cannabis arrests recorded in Australia has reduction recorded in the Australian Capital Territory. Table 2.3: : arrests, by state and territory, to (ABCI) New South Wales State/territory a Victoria Queensland South Australia r Western Australia b Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory c Total a. New South Wales data includes 3469 Cautions. Figures not available prior to b. Western Australia data includes 935 Cautions, Mandatory Education System notices. Figures not available prior to c. Australian Capital Territory data not available by drug type. Note: Excludes arrests and offences connected with Expiation Notices, Drug Infringement Notices, and Simple Offence Notices. Australian Illicit Drug Report

9 Seizures Accurate analysis of the total quantity of cannabis seized is difficult due to differing jurisdictional counting methodologies. In addition, seizure weights by state and territory, to comparisons of seizure weights over time are , demonstrating the significant increase problematic as some state police services were in the amount of cannabis seized. unable to supply unit record data or could only seizures by the Australian Federal Police provide aggregate totals. during totalled kilograms, a During , Australian law enforcement kilogram increase over the total seized kilograms of cannabis, an increase of 256. kilograms. of kilograms on the total of kilograms. This total was significantly During Australian law enforcement increased by the single detection of made seizures of cannabis, an increase of kilograms of cannabis resin by Customs in August 443 over the previous reporting period. All 200. However, leaving aside this seizure, the jurisdictions other than the Australian Capital amount of cannabis seized during the reporting Territory recorded a higher number of cannabis period was still higher than the previous year. seizures during the period. Another factor is that in each jurisdiction the User patterns weight of many seizures is not recorded. For The recently released 200 National Drug example, a seizure may be recorded as a total Strategy Household Survey identified a drop in number of plants but no weight assigned. This the number of Australians consuming cannabis makes it difficult to accurately compare the weights (AIHW 2002). However, the survey also found and numbers of seizures at the national level. that cannabis remains the most widely used illicit A number of jurisdictions reported significant drug in Australia with its consumption not limited increases in the amount of cannabis seized during to any socio-economic group (AIHW 2002). The the reporting period. Table 2.5 displays cannabis survey revealed that the percentage of the Table 2.4: : offence notices issued by state and territory, to (ABCI) State/territory r 357r 406r 456r r Total a. Expiation Notices. b. Drug Infringement Notices not introduced until 996. Figures for have been revised. c. Simple Offence Notices. r. Revised figure South Australia a Northern Territoryb Australian Capital Territory c Australian Illicit Drug Report

10 who have been arrested and are in custody. Fiftyseven per cent of both males and females tested by urinalysis had positive results for cannabis (Makkai & McGregor 2002). Australian population that had used cannabis at least once in their lifetime fell from 39. per cent Eighty-five per cent of the intravenous drug users in 998 to 33. per cent in 200. The percentage interviewed for the 2002 Illicit Drug Reporting of survey respondents who had consumed System project reported using cannabis between cannabis in the last 2 months fell from 7.9 per January and June Of those that used cent in 998 to 2.9 per cent in 200. cannabis, 52 per cent reported daily use (NDARC 2002). Reports of heroin users using cannabis in conjunction with low purity heroin continue in a number of jurisdictions. Weatherburn et al. (200), Law enforcement initiatives following the start of the heroin shortage in Draft legislation titled the Control Bill December 2000, confirmed the practice of heroin 2002 has been introduced into the Western users topping up low purity heroin with increased Australian Parliament. The Bill contains cannabis use. Interviews conducted with key provisions that will allow Western Australia Police informants for this report confirmed this practice to issue infringement notices for amounts of is ongoing in a number of jurisdictions. cannabis up to 30 grams and two plants. use is routinely detected by the Drug Legislation has passed the Lower House of the Use Monitoring in Australia project coordinated South Australian Parliament proposing that all by the Australian Institute of Criminology. The hydroponic cannabis plants be removed from the project s 200 annual report shows cannabis is cannabis expiation scheme and be subject to by far the most common drug used by people apprehension. Table 2.5: : seizures, by state and territory, weight in grams, and (ABCI) State/territory New South Wales Victoria Percentage change South Australia Western Australia Queensland Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total Note: Seizure weight totals may not add up exactly due to rounding. Australian Illicit Drug Report

11 National impact will remain at its present high levels of availability for the foreseeable future. A number of recent studies including the 200 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, the Drug Use Monitoring in Australia project, and the Illicit Drug Reporting System project, reveal a large user group within the Australian population which is driving a continuing strong demand for the drug. The perceived advantages and heightened demand associated with hydroponic cannabis production will result in continuing growth in its production in the future. Allied with this growth will be a continuation of the lucrative crossjurisdictional trade of cannabis for other illicit drugs. Associated with this profitable trade is the greater involvement of organised crime either in the syndicated production of the drug or in the provision of hydroponic equipment. The growing overt relationship between the hydroponic equipment industry and the production of cannabis will continue to be monitored by law enforcement. Its present high demand and the growing trend of hydroponic production ensure that cannabis will continue to require the greatest allocation of law enforcement resources. Presently, cannabis offences represent 72 per cent of all drug-related offences in Australia and it is anticipated this trend will continue and possibly increase in the near future. The growing involvement of organised crime in the trading of cannabis for other illicit drugs holds the greatest resource implications for law enforcement agencies. Australian Illicit Drug Report References AIHW National Drug Strategy Household Survey: First Results. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra. Breen, C., Degenhardt, L. & Roxburgh, A Illicit Drug Reporting System: December Drug Trends Bulletin National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, Sydney. Makkai, T. & McGregor, K Drug Use Monitoring in Australia: 200 annual report on drug use among adult detainees. (Research and Public Policy Series: 4). Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. Martin, B. & Cone, E Chemistry and pharmacology of cannabis. (Eds. Kalant, H., Corrigal, W., Hall, W. & Smart, R.). The Health Effects of, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto. NDARC. 2002, pers. comm., Response to ABCI request for IDRS information. November 2002, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Weatherburn, D., Jones, C., Freeman, K. & Makkai, T The Australian Heroin Drought and its Implications for Drug Policy. Crime and Justice Bulletin 59. New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, Sydney.