Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. A Handbook for Sensory

Transcription

1 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition A Handbook for Sensory and Consumer-Driven New Product Development Innovative Technologies for the Food and Beverage Industry Maurice G. O'Sullivan ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM BOSTON CAMBRIDGE HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINCAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier WP WOODHEAD PUBLISHING L

2 Contents Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition Preface xi xxix Part I Sensory Methods 1. Difference Methods 3 Introduction 3 The A Not A Method 4 The Paired Comparison Test and the 2-AFC (Alternative Forced Choice) Test 4 The Duo-Trio Test 5 The Triangle Test and the 3-AFC Test 5 The Ranking Test 9 The Tetrad Test 9 Other Tests 10 References Descriptive Methods 13 Introduction 13 Environment and Panel Conditions 15 The Panellist 16 Sample Presentation Order 16 Panel Screening 17 Gase Study Demonstration of Quantitative Descriptive Analysis. The Descriptive Profile Training Process 18 Initial Vocabulary Development 22 Data Analysis Düring Vocabulary Development 24 Protocol for the Examination of the Effectiveness of Vocabulary Development 25 Method for Quantification of Discriminative Ability 26 The Descriptor Leverage Method 28 Development of Preliminary List of Terms 29 Examination of the Effectiveness of Vocabulary Development 29 Quantification of Discriminative Ability 30 v

3 vi Contents Descriptor Leverage to Determine the Effectiveness of the Sensory Term Reduction Protocol 31 Summary 33 References Sensory Affective (Hedonic) Testing 39 Introduction 39 Qualitative Affective Testing-Focus Croups 40 Sensory Acceptance Testing 42 Gase Studies Sensory Acceptance Tests 44 Case Study 1 44 Case Study 2 46 Preference Tests 49 Ranking Preference Tests 50 Consumer Acceptance Tests 50 Market Research 50 Questionnaire Design 51 Open-Ended Questions and Closed-Option Questions 53 Conjoint Analysis 53 Sample Presentation (Randomisation, Presentation Order, Blind Tasting and Branding Effects) 54 References Rapid Sensory Profiling Methods 59 Introduction The Need for New Methods 59 Ranking Test 61 Flash Profiling 62 Ranking Descriptive Analysis 64 Free Sorting 66 Projective Mapping: Napping, Partial Napping, Sorted Napping and Ultraflash Profiling 67 Rapid Profiling Using References: Polarised Sensory Positioning, the Optimised Sensory Profile Method, Off-Flavour Quantification, Polarised Projective Mapping and Ranked-Scaling 69 Check-All-That-Apply 72 Temporal Dominance of Sensations 73 Just About Right Scales 74 The Ideal Profile Method 75 References Multivariate Data Analysis for Product Development and Optimisation 83 Introduction 83 Multivariate Data Analysis 84

4 Contents vii General Introduction to Bilinear Modelling 84 Principal Component Analysis 85 Naive Assessor Reliability 86 Generalised Procrustes Analysis 87 Preference Mapping 88 Partial Least Squares Regression 89 Gase Study Multivariate Data Analysis of Sensory Profiling and Instrumental Data 91 References 96 Part II Product Quality, Development and Optimisation 6. Shelf Life and Sensory Quality of Foods and Beverages 103 Introduction 103 Microbial Loading 107 Sensory Shelf Life Testing 109 Experimental Design and Sample Handling 109 Sensory Shelf Life Methods 110 Colour and Sensory Shelf Life 113 Texture and Sensory Shelf Life 115 Shelf Life and Flavour Profile Changes 116 Chemical Analysis 117 Accelerated Storage Tests 118 References Packaging Technologies for Maintaining Sensory Quality 125 Introduction 125 Packaging Materials 126 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 127 Low O2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 132 Vacuum Packaging 135 Active and Intelligent Packaging 137 Future Trends in Packaging 141 References Instrumental Assessment of the Sensory Quality of Food and Beverage Products 151 Introduction 151 Instrumental Methods of Colour Analysis 152

5 viii Contents Instrumental Methods for Measuring Texture 155 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 158 The Electronic Nose 162 The Electronic Tongue 164 Near Infrared and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 165 References Nutritionally Optimised Low Fat Foods 177 Introduction 177 Fat Replacers 178 Fat Substitutes 178 Fat Mimetics 179 Meat Products 182 Dairy Products 186 Confectionary Products 188 Salad Dressing and Sauces 190 References Sensory and Consumer-Led Innovative Product Development From Inception to the Shelf (Current and Future Methodologies) 197 Introduction 197 New Product Development Teams Managed and Resourced for Success 198 R&D Process Stages 200 Ideation 201 Project Preplanning 202 Validation of Proof of Concept 203 Regulatory Guidelines 204 Least Cost Formulation 205 Technological Capability 205 Contingency of Supply 207 Copycatting and Reverse Engineering 208 Line Extension, Brand Extension and Cannibalisation! 208 Process Optimisation and Upscaling 209 Marketing 209 Pre- and Postapproval Shelf Life Testing 209 Technological Developments, Internet Testing, Immersive Technology, Mobile Applications and Eye Tracking 210 Sensory Methodology Consumer Evaluation, Focus Croups, Validation, Ideal Profiling 212 Case Studies 214 References 218

6 Contents ix Part III Case Studies: Sensory and Consumer Driven NPD in Action 11. Sensory Properties Affecting Meat and Poultry Quality 225 Introduction 225 Microbiological Stability 226 Factors Affecting Meat Colour 228 Factors Affecting Meat Flavour 230 Factors Affecting Meat Tenderness 232 Salt and Nitrate Reduction Strategies in Processed Meats 233 Salt in Processed Meats 233 Nitrate and Nitrite in Processed Meats 237 Human Health Impact of Nitrate and Nitrite 238 Innovative Packaging (Active, Intelligent) of Meat Products 239 Evaluating the Shelf Life of Meat and Poultry Sensory Analysis 240 Case Study Sensory Profiling (Quantitative Descriptive Analysis) of Pork Meat Samples Over Different Time Points (Days, Shelf Life) and Correlation With Physicochemical Data 242 Training and Profiling 243 Monte Carlo Power Estimation of Experimental Design 243 Data Analysis 243 Results and Discussion 246 References Sensory Properties of Dairy Products 259 Introduction 259 Sensory Properties of Milk 262 Sensory Properties of Milk Powder 263 Sensory Properties of Butter 264 Sensory Properties of Yoghurt 266 Sensory Properties of Ice Cream 267 Sensory Properties of Cheese 268 Case Study: Sensory Quality of Unheated and Heated Mozzarella 272 References Sensory Properties of Beverage Products (Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic) 281 Introduction 281 Sensory Properties of Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices 282 Sensory Properties of Coffee 283 Sensory Properties of Cream Liqueurs 287 Sensory Properties of Wine 289

7 x Contents Sensory Properties of Distilled Spirits 291 Sensory Properties of Beer 293 Case Study: Sensory Effects of Residual Oxygen in Bottled Beer 296 References Sensory Properties of Bakery and Confectionary Products 305 Introduction 305 Sensory Properties of Biscuits and Cookies 306 Sensory Properties of Cakes and Muffins 307 Sensory Properties of Chocolate 309 Sensory Properties of Sugar 310 Calorie Reduction Strategies 312 Gluten-Free Products 315 Shelf Life Microbiological Spoilage, Staling and Oxidative Stability 317 Antistaling Strategies 318 References 321 Index 325