Introduction to the Scientific Method. Knowledge and Methods. Methods for gathering knowledge. method of obstinacy

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Erica Hodge
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1 Introduction to Research Methods COGS 160 (COGS 14A) Dept. of Cognitive Science Prof. Rafael Núñez R Introduction to the Scientific Method ~ Chapter 1 Knowledge and Methods Method (Merriam-Webster) a procedure or process for attaining an object a systematic procedure, technique, or mode of inquiry employed by or proper to a particular discipline or art Methods for gathering knowledge method of obstinacy intuitive method (and superstition) method of authority rational-inductive method empirical method descriptive method experimental method method of obstinacy Do the thing in the same way we have always done it Persistence of superstition Well-established, largely shared knowhows (e.g., computer keyboards)

2 intuitive method (& superstition) Folk knowledge No explicit reasoning or logic inference (e.g, the earth is flat) method of authority Blind acceptance of what is said by an expert Dogmatic foundations of many religions Examples: Giordano Bruno, Galileo Military organisations rational-inductive method Purely rational thinking Logical deduction from premises; Syllogisms Essential (but not enough in itself) for science Very useful for the elaboration of hypotheses empirical method Primacy of direct experience Observation of actual facts Risks (e.g., generalizations) Essential (but not enough in itself) for science descriptive method Systematic observation To identify and classify elements No immediate analyses of cause-effect relations Sometimes uses correlational methods Very important when launching new disciplines High ecological validity

experimental method To establish cause-effect relationships Focuses on explaining (and making predictions about) facts Systematic control of factors Rigorous manipulation of relevant variables

3 experimental method To establish cause-effect relationships Focuses on explaining (and making predictions about) facts Systematic control of factors Rigorous manipulation of relevant variables Maximized control of the research setting Ecological validity? Scientific Method General method for understanding regularities in the world (and for gathering knowledge) via systematic observations Goals (Objectives): Describe Explain Predict Control Produce/Build Scientific Criteria Explanation or Hypothesis must be consistent with the existing body of knowledge They must be conceived in a way so they can be empirically observed/tested (falsifiable) They should be (in principle) reproducible Theories A Sc. theory is a set of related statements that explains and predicts phenomena Statements: Laws Principles Beliefs / Assumptions Evaluating theories Parsimony Precision Testability Accuracy

4 Science in the Real World Practices, policies, politics, issues: A case study Is salt good or bad for you? New York Times article NYT piece A good example of how science actually works in the real world real issues real debates interests, practices, debates, funding, argumentation, politics,... NYT piece Identifying elements that are relevant for this course: claims, hypotheses, facts, empirical evidence, controversies cause-effect relationships, risks, authority, confounds, scientific questions causal chains, operational definitions conventional wisdom, beliefs, variables plausibility, likelihoods, conclusions The Research Process ~ Chapter 3a Scientific Questions A Sc.Q. is one that allows an answer to be obtained by the collection of empirical data Essential: At the origin of any research Must be explicit, clear, and approachable

Scientific Questions Sources: Phenomena with unknown causes (Apparent) Contradictions within a theory Generalization of findings Replication of previous research Good (and bad) Questions Vague and

5 Scientific Questions Sources: Phenomena with unknown causes (Apparent) Contradictions within a theory Generalization of findings Replication of previous research Good (and bad) Questions Vague and unclear questions e.g., Is madness a natural phenomenon? Gathering information is not possible Technical, ethical issues, etc Serious problems for realizing the study Budget, personnel, etc Irrelevant questions Little or no contribution (Who cares!?) Observation and Data A Sc.Q. is one that allows an answer to be obtained by the collection of empirical data Empirical Data: Scores or measurements based on systematic observation Operational definition: A specification of the operations used to make observations, to manipulate an independent variable, or to measure the dependent variable Measuring with Accuracy Objectivity Reliability Validity Sensitivity Objectivity Measuring should avoid individual and subjective interpretations It should maximize the agreement between observers

6 Reliability The application of a technique of measure should give the same (or very similar) results; consistency The instrument has to be stable Test-retest reliability

Cognitive domain: Comprehension Answer location: Elements of Empiricism Question type: MC

Cognitive domain: Comprehension Answer location: Elements of Empiricism Question type: MC Chapter 2 1. Knowledge that is evaluative, value laden, and concerned with prescribing what ought to be is known as knowledge. *a. Normative b. Nonnormative c. Probabilistic d. Nonprobabilistic. 2. Most