Exemplification Research in Communication

Transcription

1 Exemplification Research in Communication March 20,

2 What can you expect today 1. Basic idea of exemplification theory 2. Empirical data 3. Causes for the exemplification effect 4. Exemplification and journalism March 20,

3 What can you expect today 1. Basic idea of exemplification theory The dentist problem March 20,

4 Rational Choice Theory Basic idea: People decide and act in a rational manner Principle: Minimization of costs, maximization of benefits or utility Implied assumption: Recipients process every available information, they thoroughly balance pros and cons in order to form an opinion. March 20,

5 Exemplification (e.g. Zillmann & Brosius, 2000) Media coverage usually employs two basic types of information: Base-rate information: General quantitative statements about an issue or problem, e.g. facts, figures. Exemplar information: Illustrative individual cases, e.g. individual opinions, stories, fates. Exemplars are short quotations (verbal or visual) from concerned or interested people that illustrate a particular problem or a particular view on a problem. They are frequently used in journalism because of their authenticity and their vividness. (Brosius, 2000) March 20,

6 Base-rate information: Exemplar information: March 20,

7 Exemplars + vivid authentic emotionally appealing easy to understand intentional chosen by the journalist low validity Base rates trustworthy high validity pallid abstract March 20,

8 Exemplification Effect 75% yes yes yes yes no no no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 48% Which kind of information will have an impact on recipients judgments about guardian angels? People tend to form their judgments concerning a social issue or problem rather on the basis of exemplars than on the basis of base-rate information. March 20,

9 This exemplification effect refers to: recipients perception of a climate of opinion and reality judgments What do you think, how many people belief in guardian angels? recipients perception of risk recipients own opinion Do you personally belief in guardian angels? causal attributions (Who is responsible for the presented social problem?) March 20,

10 Empirical Support I Typical exemplification study (Brosius & Bathelt, 1994): Experiment on the impact of the distribution of exemplar opinions Presentation of newspaper articles Articles dealt with one of two different issues: The quality of the Frankfurter Apfelwein or the introduction of obligatory computer courses for students The number of exemplar arguments in favor and against were varied systematically Base-rate information was held constant: The majority doesn t like the Apfelwein any more; the majority favors computer courses. March 20,

11 Stimulus article (example): Base-rate information March 20,

12 Results (Apfelwein): % 100 Estimation:reported climate of opinion 93, , , ,7 19,3 5, Exemplar distribution: number of exemplar arguments (congruent) number of exemplar arguments (incongruent) March 20,

13 Results (Apfelwein): % 100 own opinion 80 69, ,7 61,4 57,3 59,1 55,4 48, Exemplar distribution: number of exemplar arguments (congruent) number of exemplar arguments (incongruent) March 20,

14 Results (computer courses): % 100 Estimation:reported climate of opinion 95, , , ,7 18,6 6, Exemplar distribution: number of exemplar arguments (congruent) number of exemplar arguments (incongruent) March 20,

15 Results (computer courses): % 100 own opinion ,4 42,3 55,7 56,1 48,2 51, , Exemplar distribution: number of exemplar arguments (congruent) number of exemplar arguments (incongruent) March 20,

16 Results: % Estimation: What do you think, how many percent gain weight after having dieted? F=3.14, p< Exemplars: selective Exemplars: mixed Exemplars: representative Basis: n=213 March 20,

17 Empirical Support II Experiment on success and failure of dietary programs (Zillmann et al., 1992) Presentation of a newspaper article on weight gain after a diet Base-rate information: One third of the people having dieted gain weight Exemplar information is varied systematically: Group 1: All people having dieted gain weight (selective) Group 2: Half of the people having dieted gain weight (mixed) Group 3: One third of the people having dieted gain weight (representative) March 20,

18 Empirical Support III Results on exemplification effects in general: Studies have shown that exemplification effects are not only short-term, but last over a certain period of time. Strength of effects: Reality judgments are most strongly influenced by exemplar depictions; their impact on recipients own opinion is weak. Exemplification effects occur independently of the kind of mass media (newspaper, television, radio) Exemplification effects occur independently of the issue, e.g. fictitious social problems or current political conflicts March 20,

19 Results on the depiction of exemplar information: Quotations: Strengthen the effect Dramaturgy and vividness: Strengthen the effect slightly Images, social distance, quality of arguments: Without any influence Distribution of presented exemplars (e.g. 4:0, 4:1, 3:1, 2:2 ): Is almost linearly reflected by the recipients perception of the climate of opinion March 20,

20 Results on the depiction of base-rate information: Precision: Influence is slightly stronger when base rates are imprecise ( more and more, the majority instead of concrete figures) Accentuation and repetition: Without any influence Visualization (e.g. via charts): Strengthens the effect considerably March 20,

21 Results on the recipients characteristics: Gender and age: Without any influence Recipients similarity to exemplars: Without any influence Empathy and involvement: Without any influence Exemplification effects are independent of recipients characteristics Cognitive causes? March 20,

22 Possible Causes of Exemplification Effects Peripheral route of processing media messages, information is processed and stored in a superficial manner. Availability heuristic: Judgments are based on information which easily come to mind. General human incapability of processing figures and numbers, i.e. base rates? Reliance on exemplar information when forming a judgment is not irrational, but everyday-rational. People are used to process single-case information. In contrast, facts and figures play a minor role in everyday life. March 20,

23 Model of Everyday Rationality (Brosius, 1995) Research has shown that people usually process information incompletely irrational? Sometimes it may be quite rational to neglect, i.e. not to process and not to store information Alltagsrationalität: Ähnlich wie bei der alltäglichen Kommunikation handeln Menschen auch bei der Rezeption von Informationssendungen nicht im wissenschaftlichen Sinne rational. Das heißt nicht, sie handeln irrational, sondern sie handeln im Sinne einer übergeordneten Rationalität, die ihn handlungsfähiger macht. (Brosius, 1995) March 20,

24 Elaboration-Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) Attention Cognition Forming of opinions Central Route high complete and extensive perception of content Elaboration of arguments: activation of cognitive linkages and own experiences activation of memory, thoughts, associations, ideas scrutiny of arguments Peripheral Route low limited perception of content Elaboration of context cues: quantity of arguments credibility of communicator attractiveness of communicator visual and acoustic cues mimic Decision basis quality of arguments quantity of arguments, affective impressions Decision stability high stability and resistance low stability and resistance March 20,

25 Heuristic-Systematic Model (Chaiken et al., 1989) We conceive of heuristic processing as a more limited processing mode that demands much less cognitive effort and capacity than systematic processing. When processing heuristically, people focus on that subset of available information that enables them to use simple inferential rules, schemata, or cognitive heuristics to formulate their judgments and decisions. (Chaiken et al., 1989) March 20,

26 Exemplification and Theories of Media Effects Cultivation as a long-term effect of exemplification? Contribution of exemplars to the emergence of a spiral of silence? Key events as critical points for the development of an issue? March 20,

27 Exemplification and Journalism How wide-spread is exemplification in actual journalism How do journalists use exemplars Do exemplars reflect or create an issue March 20,

28 Exemplars as stylistic devices Percentage of all stylistic devices used Average number of devices per story Percentage of stories that used the device % (n = 5072) n % (n = 474) Exemplars: Person or event-related reports or quotations Interviews with witnesses, affected or unaffected persons Total exemplars Other stylistic devices: Expert interviews Inserted printed or filmed documents Reporter appearances on screen Total other stylistic devices March 20,

29 A more general Theory of Illustrations statistical evidence illustrations exemplar evidence March 20,

30 Statistical Evidence journalist expert layman quantifies a problem/issue in regard to scope (narrow wide) size defined non-defined absolute relative/ change March 20,

31 Exemplar Evidence (journalist) person concerned layman provides a self-description in regard to fate observation opinion March 20,

32 presentation live/ online record statistical single case statistical single case applause CRM displays TED telephone call (TV/radio) visit in a show interview with the man on the street? March 20,

33 concrete presentation symbolic vivid presentation pallid March 20,