Men s Lifestyle Magazines: The Road to a Healthy Life or a Mental Disorder? Ilona Gorbovskaya

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1 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September Men s Lifestyle Magazines: The Road to a Healthy Life or a Mental Disorder? Ilona Gorbovskaya Abstract Subscriptions to men s fitness magazines are rising each year, as well as the number of men signing up for a membership at local gyms. Nowadays fitness magazines provide not only exercise routines to stay in shape, but also nutrition columns with recipes to maintain a healthy weight and toned muscles. However, some evidence suggests there is a dark side to this seemingly healthy trend. Comparing themselves with the current male ideals portrayed on the covers of such magazines, ordinary men experience inadequacy, which may often lead to body dissatisfaction, depressed mood, and in extreme cases to eating disorders. Moreover, recent statistics showed a staggering increase of hospital admissions among men due to eating disorders. These factors altogether show that the discussion of the relationship between body dissatisfaction in men and the media is much overdue. We live in a society that is constantly bombarded by appearance-oriented advertising, and our perception of beauty changes in relation to these standards imposed on us by media. The fashion industry and media, in general, are constantly dictating to us unattainable ideals of femininity and masculinity (Anderson & DiDomenico, 2006; Berel & Irving, 1998; Hobza, Walker, Yakushko, & Peugh, 2007). Young people are striving to achieve these beauty ideals through means ranging from plastic surgery to the use of steroids and increased use of beauty products. For example, as of 1998 the annual expenditure on beauty products in the United Stated came to roughly $8 billion (UN Developmental Program, 1998), an amount that is much higher than most countries spend on their education. The beauty standards portrayed in media are becoming extreme, with men being portrayed as exceptionally athletic and muscular, and women as overly thin, long-legged, and largebreasted (Kilbourne, 1995; Percy & Lautman, 1994). Much research has been conducted on the detrimental effects of beauty advertisements on mental health and body image of women and girls in response to the evershrinking size of the average fashion model (Derenne & Beresin, 2006; Thompson, 1996; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). However, the unfavourable effects of advertisements on the mental health of teenage boys and men have been largely overlooked. Controversy surrounds the effects of fitness and fashion advertisements on men s physical and mental well-being. In recent times, men have been bombarded by images of extremely well-built, athletic, and muscular males portrayed in the media, especially on the covers of men s fitness and health magazines (Men s Health, Men s Fitness, Muscle & Fitness). By 2009, $61.3 billion was spent on male grooming products worldwide, with this number expecting to reach $84.9 billion by 2014 (Packaged Facts, 2009). Many men s magazines feature articles on weight-lifting strategies and exercising routines, including nutrition columns featuring recipes to help build body muscle (Andersen & DiDomenico, 1992). Headlines such as Build Your Back and Abs- At Once!, found in the recent issue of Men s Health magazine, are what most of the content of male oriented health and fitness magazines represent (Andersen &

2 22 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September 2013 DiDomenico, 2006; Labre, 2005). The trends described above might lead one to conclude that men are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of fitness and a healthy lifestyle. However, the trends may also indicate a much more disturbing phenomenon. This paper will argue that men s magazines do not always inspire men to adopt a healthy lifestyle, but rather, may compel them to strive towards unrealistic images of hypertrophic masculinity portrayed in television and billboards and may result in various mental health issues and steroid abuse. In Search of a Perfect Man: Media Portrayal of Masculinity The masculine image portrayed in the majority of male oriented magazines promotes a healthy lifestyle by featuring articles on the importance of a healthy diet, regular exercise, and relaxation techniques. However, according to Pope, Phillips and Olivardia (2000), men are becoming alarmingly obsessed with their bodies and experience inadequacy when comparing themselves to the extremely muscular models portrayed in the advertisements. For example, in a study by Daniel Agliata and Stacey Tantleff-Dunn (2004), 158 men were exposed to television advertisements containing either ideal male images or neutral images. These advertisements were inserted between the segments of a television show that the men watched. Results showed that men in the appearance condition (ideal male images) became significantly more depressed and showed much greater dissatisfaction with their bodies compared to the men in the neutral condition. The evolution of body image in media has progressed from a healthy-looking physique to unattainable 8-pack abs, shiny hair-free skin, and a stylish hairdo with an emphasis on sexuality. Consider for example the covers of Men s Health magazine from April 1997 and February 2013 (see Appendix A). While the themes in the headlines of both magazines are relatively similar, the images on the covers are rather distinct. The cover of Men s Health from April 1997 shows a picture that one can expect to see in any gym: a healthy-looking man in sports shorts and running shoes doing push-ups. However, the cover of the same magazine 16 years later clearly advertises much more than a healthy interest in sports: unnaturally strong abs that are hard to attain with proper diet and exercising alone. Moreover, instead of a regular sports outfit, modern media image of the man portrays fashionable low-rise jeans. Although both men have hair-free skin, it is noticeably shinier on the cover of 2013 as if to draw prominent attention to the muscles. Both covers have headlines about sex; however, on the cover of Men s Health 2013, the man is embraced by what appears to be a naked woman, suggesting that the image portrayed by the man is appealing to the opposite sex. While the themes of both the 1997 cover and the 2013 are sport and health, the cover of the 2013 suggests much more: it sells an idea of a metrosexual man (Simpson, 2002), who spends considerable amount of time and resources on physical appearance and lifestyle, and who is desired by the opposite sex. Hence, it is not surprising that men feel inadequate when comparing themselves to the bare-chested, pumped model on the modern cover (Schooler & Ward, 2006). The exposure to the images of extremely wellbuilt men, such as those seen on the covers of Men s Health, Men s Fitness, and Muscle & Fitness, affects the perception of normal and ideal body types in men (Pope at al., 2000). For example, in a study by Pope and colleagues (2000), more than half of the boys ages 11 to 17 chose a body type unattainable without anabolic steroids as their ideal body type. This type of steroid, which indeed helps to increase muscle size and strength, is linked to numerous serious side effects including reduced fertility and blood clotting (Mottram & George, 2000). Eating Disorders Stemming from Body Dissatisfaction According to the national survey by Cash

3 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September (1997), the percentage of men who expressed dissatisfaction with their bodies increased, from 15 to 43 percent, in the last two decades (Berscheid, Walster, & Bohrnstedt, 1973; Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986). Body dissatisfaction may often trigger the development of eating disorders (National Eating Disorders Association, 2004). Men are hospitalized and seek treatment for eating disorders far less often than women primarily because these disorders are stigmatized as being women s diseases (Drummond, 2007). Nonetheless, according to UK s National Health Service Review, there has been a staggering 66% increase in the number of hospital admissions of men as a result of eating disorders in the last 10 years (Knowles, 2011). Body dissatisfaction appears to be linked with low self-esteem, social anxiety, and depression (Cash, 1990; Frederick & Morrison, 1996; Thompson, 1992), and serves as a conditional risk factor in developing eating disorders (Kearney-Cooke & Steichen-Asch, 1990), steroid abuse (Blouin, & Goldfield, 1995), and muscle dysmorphia in men (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997). Eating disorders conventionally have been mostly associated with women; however, the reported number of men suffering from eating disorders now is higher than ever before. Men now account for 10 to 15 percent of individuals suffering from anorexia and bulimia nervosa (Wagner, 2012; Carlat & Camargo, 1997). The two most common types of eating disorders are anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by an extreme fear of gaining weight while being markedly underweight (less than 85% of the normal weight), which has two main subtypes: restricting (reduced food intake and excessive exercising to prevent weight gain) and binge eating/ purging type (engage in binge eating, self-induced vomiting, and misuse of laxatives or diuretics). On the other hand, people with bulimia nervosa engage in periods of excessive eating, followed by self-induced vomiting and/or misuse of laxatives to prevent weigh gain, but maintain normal weight or are overweight (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Misfortunes Never Come Alone: Comorbidity People rarely develop eating disorders without other comorbid conditions. According to the National Eating Disorders Association (2004), a number of psychological, interpersonal, sociological, and biological factors can be underlying causes of eating disorders. These factors include low self-esteem, feelings of inadequacy, current or former abuse due to size bias, cultural pressures to strive for thinness, specific cultural beauty standards characterized by certain body shapes and weight, and cultural pressures to achieve the perfect body (National Eating Disorders Association, 2004). Some of these factors, including low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy, are often seen in people suffering from Major Depressive Disorder. Indeed, 50% of people who suffer from eating disorders meet the diagnostic criteria for depression (Sullivan, 1995). Major Depressive Disorder, unfortunately, is not the only comorbid condition frequently seen in people with eating disorders. Another comorbid condition with eating disorders, which is seen disturbingly often in men, is Body Dysmorphic Disorder. It is a rather common condition characterized by an unbalanced concern with an imagined body defect, or a disproportionate preoccupation with a minor physical anomaly (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). People with this disorder are often likely to repeatedly seek cosmetic surgery to deal with imagined or real physical anomaly. According to recent statistics, 7 to 15 percent of people undergoing cosmetic surgery are suffering from Body Dysmorphic Disorder. This disorder is often under-recognized and underreported, resulting in 45 to 70 percent of people suffering from this disorder experiencing suicidal ideation, and 20 to 24 percent attempting suicide (Ahmed, 2011). According to the findings by Phillips and Diaz (1997), men suffering from this condition were likely to be preoccupied with hair thinning, genitals, and body musculature,

4 24 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September 2013 and were found to have comorbid depression, alcohol dependence or abuse, and were as likely as women to seek cosmetic surgery (Phillips & Diaz, 1997). Indeed, the images of men in magazines like Playgirl, Men s Health, Men s Fitness, and Muscle & Fitness advertise very specific standards of masculine beauty: excessively developed upper body with hair-free skin and no signs of receding hairline. These set standards may contribute to the sense of dissatisfaction with one s body when there is a discrepancy between the media image and self (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). The resulting body dissatisfaction may often contribute to the development of various psychological disorders discussed previously. Body dissatisfaction is also known to be one of the important risk factors for developing a binge eating disorder (National Eating Disorders Association, 2004). This disorder is defined in the fourth edition (text revision) of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM- IV-TR) as frequent binge eating episodes, characterized by the consumption of a large quantity of food in a discrete period of time, accompanied by a subjective sense of loss of control over eating (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Binge eating disorder has the highest prevalence rate in men when compared to other types of eating disorders; the lifetime prevalence for binge eating disorder in men is 2.0%, compared to 0.3% for anorexia nervosa and 0.5% for bulimia nervosa (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007). Images portrayed in men s lifestyle magazines put pressure on men to achieve a perfect physique. Unflattering selfcomparisons with models creates dissonance and leads to body dissatisfaction and negative body image (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). A longitudinal study by Stice and colleagues has demonstrated that these factors are among other risk factors leading to binge eating disorders (Stice, Presnell, Spangler, 2002). An Ongoing Struggle of a Modern Man Achieving the body image portrayed in men s lifestyle magazines is becoming increasingly difficult, especially in societies where food is abundant and considered an important part of social interaction. Hence, it is not astonishing that eating disorders in developed countries have become much more widespread in the last few decades (Daw, 2001; Mandal, 2012). Based on their analysis of literature, Makino and colleagues (2003) found that prevalence rates for eating disorders for women are much higher in Western countries. It may be speculated that these trends are due to the abundance of different types of food, and the culture that surrounds it, and, therefore, may be generalized to the male counterpart. Moreover, according to the National Eating Disorder Association, only 10% of men who have eating disorder seek treatment, thus the actual number of men suffering from eating disorders is likely much higher than official statistics (Wagner, 2012). The quality of food is another important factor that can determine the body shape of a population. Higher demand for food, due to the rise in population, led to the discovery of new ways of producing and processing food, and as a result, processed food became cheaper and more accessible than organic food (Peters, 2008). This is especially true for developed countries, where the majority of the population is consuming mostly processed foods. Studies show that this conventional food contains less nutrients, vitamins, and antioxidants when compared to organic food, and people s consumption of this type of food has been linked to weight gain (Devlin, 2008; Fell, 2003). Moreover, nowadays men spend even more time at work, (Turcotte, 2007) with little time left for cooking nutritious meals, resulting in lunches at fast food restaurants and less time for exercising (Turcotte, 2007). These aspects of men s lifestyles make it even more difficult to achieve a perfect body and stay in shape. Multiplied by the pressures created by media images, larger numbers of men develop eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa (Wagner, 2012) in their attempts to control their weight via self-induced purging or starving. Nonetheless, it is important to note that the increase in prevalence of eating disorders has also been

5 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September observed in non-western countries (Makino, et al., 2003). The aforementioned factors may increase the risks for developing eating disorders, and may be responsible for the higher prevalence of these disorders in western cultures. However, eating disorders may appear differently in different cultures, and it is important to analyze the diagnostic tools used for psychological assessments in non-western countries, since the diagnostic criteria based on Western norms may not be appropriate for all cultures. Conclusion Numerous public figures have opened up about their struggle with mental illness in order to promote awareness and eliminate the stigma associated with people suffering with mental disorders. For example, in 2008, former British Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott confessed to suffering from bulimia nervosa for two decades, with hopes of raising awareness of the disease and of reducing its gender association (Jones, 2008). The list of famous men suffering from bulimia nervosa includes musicians Elton John, Elvis Presley, and Richey Edwards, former football star Paul Gascoigne, and Formula One driver David Coulthard (Jones, 2008). One of the most dramatic media cases of men suffering from eating disorders was Jeremy Gillitzer, a male model who passed away in 2010 after a long struggle with the eating/purging type of anorexia nervosa (Dukerschein, 2011). These cases brought attention to the effects of media on the mental health of men. Eating disorders have been assumed to mostly affect women; however, as it has been discussed throughout this paper, it has clearly become a prominent problem in men as well. The content of men s magazines appears to promote a healthy lifestyle, while the images portrayed in them may lead men to experience dissatisfaction with their bodies, and to rely on excessive exercising and steroid use in attempts to achieve the modern portrayal of beauty. With the alarming increase in the number of men suffering from these conditions (Wagner, 2012), it is important to raise the awareness of the prevalence of these disorders in men, and eliminate the stigma associated with them. More research must be conducted on the relationship between media portrayals of men and its effects on their mental health in order to find new ways of eliminating these negative effects. References Agliata, D. & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), Ahmed, I. (2011, February 11). Psychiatric Manifestations of Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Medscape: Drugs, Diseases & Procedures. Retrieved from article/ overview American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author. Andersen, A. E. & DiDomenico, L. (1992). Diet vs. shape content of popular male and female magazines: A dose-response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(3), Berel, S. & Irving, L.M. (1998). Media and Disturbed Eating: An Analysis of Media Influence and Implications for Prevention. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18(4), Berscheid, E., Walster, E., & Bohrnstedt, G. (1973). The happy American body: A survey report. Psychology Today, 7(6), Blouin, A. G.,& Goldfield, G. S. (1995). Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, Braun, D. L., Sunday, S. R., Huang, A., et al (1999). More males seek treatment for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25,

6 26 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September 2013 Carlat, D.J., Camargo, Jr. C. A. (1997). Review of Bulimia Nervosa in Males. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148(7), Cash, T. F. (1990). The psychology of physical appearance: Aesthetics, attributes, and images. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change. New York: Guilford Press. Cash, T. F. (1997). The body image workbook: An 8-step program for learning to like your looks. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Cash, T. F., Winstead, B. A., & Janda, L. H. (1986). The great Amercian shape-up. Psychology Today, 24(1), Daw, J. (2001) Eating disorders on the rise. American Psychological Association, 32(9), 21. Derenne, J. L. & Beresin, E. V. (2006). Body Image, Media, and Eating Disorders. American Psychiatry, 30(3), Devlin, K. (2008, May 27). Organic milk is healthier, study says. The Telegraph. Retrieved from uknews/ /organic-milk-is-healthiersays-study.html Drummond, M. J. N. (2007). Men, Body Image, and Eating Disorders. International Journal of Men s Health, 1(1), Dukerschein, B. (2011, October 10). Thinspiration not just women s disease. The Columbia Chronicle. Retrieved from com/thinspiration-not-just-womens-disease/ Fell, A. (2003, March 7). Organic and Sustainable Foods have more Polyphenolics Linked to Health Benefits. The Regents of the University of California: UC David. Retrieved from lasso?id=6312 Frederick, C. M. & Morrison, C. S. (1996). Social physique anxiety: Personality constructs, motivations, exercise attitudes, and behaviors. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82(1), Goldwert, L. (2011, July 11). Anorexia sufferers five more times more likely to die; Patients more likely to commit suicide, die young. NY Daily News.com. Retrieved from nydailynews.com/ /entertainment/ _1_anorexia-nervosa-eatingdisorders-brazilian-model Hobza, C. L., Walker, K. E., Yakushko, O., & Peugh, J.L. (2007). What About Men? Social comparison and the effects of media images on body and self-esteem. Psychology of Mean and Masculinity, 8(3), Hudson, J. I., Hiripi, E. Jr., Pope, H. J., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61(3), Jones, S. (2008, April 21). I took refuge in stuffing my face John Prescott admits bulimia. The Guardian. Retrieved from: guardian.co.uk/society/2008/apr/21/health. johnprescott. Kearney-Cooke, A., & Steichen-Asch, P. (1990). Men, body image, and eating disorders. In A. E. Andersen (Ed.), Males with eating disorders (pp ). New York: Brunner/Mazel. Kilbourne, J. (1995). Slim hopes: Advertising and the obsession with thinness [Video]. Nothampton, MA: Media Education Foundation. Knowles, R. (2011, July 13). Rise in men suffering from eating disorders, say GPs. BBC News. Retrieved from Labre, M. P. (2005). Burn Fat, Build Muscle: A content analysis of Men s Health and Men s Fitness. International Journal of Men s Health, 4(2), Makino, M., Tsuboi, K., Dennerstein, L. (2003). Prevalence of eating disorders: a comparison of Western and non-western countries. Med- GenMed: Medscape General Medicine, 6(3), 49. Mandal, A. (2012, April 25). Rise of eating disorders among men and boys. News Medical. Retrieved from news/ /rise-of-eating-disordersamong-men-and-boys.aspx

7 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September National Eating Disorders Association. (2004). What causes eating disorders? Retrieved from www. NationalEatingDisorders.org Packaged Facts. (2009). Men s Grooming Products: A Global Analysis. Retrieved from Care / Percy, L., & Lautman, M. R. (1994). Advertising, weigt loss, and eating disorders. In E. M. Clark, T. C. Brock, & D. W. Stewart (Eds.), Attention, attitude, and effect in response to advertising. (pp ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Peters, K. (2008, September 10). It s Easy being Green: Organic vs. Conventional Foods- The Gloves Come Off. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from issues/2008/09/organic_green.html Phillips, K. & Diaz, S. (1997). Gender differences in body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 185(9), Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. A. (1997). Muscle dysmorphia An under recognised form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics, 38(6), Pope, H. G., Jr., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: Free Press. Rohter, L. (2006, December 30). Burst of High- Profile Anorexia Deaths Unsettles Brazil. The New York Times. Retrieved from americas/30brazil.html Schooler, D., & Ward, L. M. (2006). Average Joes: Men s relationships with media, real bodies, and sexuality. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7, Simpson, M. (2002, July 22). Meet the metrosexual: He s well dressed, narcissistic and obsessed with butts. But don t call him gay. Salon, Retrieved from Stice E, Presnell K, Spangler D. (2002). Risk factors for binge eating onset in adolescent girls: a 2-year prospective investigation. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 21(2), Sullivan, P. F. (1995). Mortality in anorexia nervosa. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(7), Thomas, T. (2003, October 28). Gym won t fix it. The Guardian. Retrieved from guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2003/oct/28/ healthandwellbeing.health3 Thompson, J. K. (1992). Body image: Extent of disturbance, associated features, theoretical models, assessment methodologies, intervention strategies, and a proposal for a new DSM-IV diagnostic category body image disorder. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification category (pp. 3-54). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Publishing Company. Thompson, J. K. (1996). Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff- Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Turcotte, M. (2007, February 13). Longer work day cutting into family time: study. CBC News Canada. Retrieved from news/canada/story/2007/02/13/family-time. html U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 1998 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), Wagner, R. (2012, April 5). The Silent Victims: More Men Have Eating Disorders Than Ever Before. The Altantic. Retrieved from theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/the-silent-victims-more-men-have-eating-disordersthan-ever-before/255171/

8 28 Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of Psychology Vol. 2 September 2013 Appendix A FIGURE 1: Left, Cover of Men s Health, April 1997; Right, Cover of Men s Health, February 2013 by Men s Health, 1997 & 2013, Emmaus: Rodale. Copyright 1997 & 2013 by Men s Health.